Thermostable luciferases and methods of production

ABSTRACT

Luciferase enzymes with greatly increased thermostability, e.g., at least half lives of 2 hours at 50° C., cDNAs encoding the novel luciferases, and hosts transformed to express the luciferases, are disclosed. Methods of producing the luciferases include recursive mutagenesis. The luciferases are used in conventional methods, some employing kits.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/811,898, filed on Jun. 12, 2007, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/378,168, filed Feb. 28, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/396,154, filed on Sept. 15, 1999, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/156,946, filed Sept. 18, 1998 (Abandoned), and of PCT/US98/19494, filed Sep. 18, 1998, both of which claim priority from U.S. application Ser. No. 60/059,379, filed Sep. 19, 1997, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

The invention was made with grants from the Government of the United States of America (grants 1R43 GM506 23-01 and 2R44 GM506 23-02 from the National Institutes of Health and grants ISI-9160613 and III-9301865 from the National Science Foundation). The Government may have certain rights to the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention is directed to mutant luciferase enzymes having greatly increased thermostability compared to natural luciferases or to luciferases from which they are derived as measured, e.g., by half-lives of at least 2 hours at 50° C. in aqueous solution. The invention includes mutant luciferase enzymes that are resistant to inhibition by a substrate inhibitor, e.g., a substrate analog. The invention is also drawn to polynucleotides encoding the novel luciferases, and to hosts transformed to express the luciferases. The invention is further drawn to methods of producing luciferases with increased thermostability and the use of these luciferases in any method in which previously known luciferases are conventionally employed. Some of the uses employ kits. The invention also provides a method of producing a polynucleotide sequence encoding an enzyme that is resistant to inhibition by an inhibitor, and a method which yields a polynucleotide sequence encoding an enzyme having enhanced enzymological properties.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Luciferases are defined by their ability to produce luminescence. Beetle luciferases form a distinct class with unique evolutionary origins and chemical mechanisms (Wood, 1995).

Although the enzymes known as beetle luciferases are widely recognized for their use in highly sensitive luminescent assays, their general utility has been limited due to low thermostability. Beetle luciferases having amino acid sequences encoded by cDNA sequences cloned from luminous beetles are not stable even at moderate temperatures. For example, even the most stable of the luciferases, LucPpe2, obtained from a firefly has very little stability at the moderate temperature of 37° C. Firefly luciferases are a sub-group of the beetle luciferases. Historically, the term “firefly luciferase” referred to the enzyme LucPpy from a single species Photinus pyralis (Luc+ is a mutant version of LucPpy, see U.S. Pat. No. 5,670,356).

Attempts have been reported to mutate natural cDNA sequences encoding luciferase and to select mutants for improved thermostability (White et al., 1994; from P. pyralis, and Kajiyama and Nekano, 1993; from Luciola lateralis.) However, there is still a need to improve the characteristics and versatility of this important class of enzymes.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention is drawn to novel and remarkably thermostable luciferases, including luciferase enzymes with half-lives of at least 2 hours at 50° C., or at least 5 hours at 50° C., in an aqueous solution. As described hereinbelow, after 2 hours at 50° C. in an aqueous solution, a thermostable luciferase of the invention lost less than 5% luminescence activity. The mutant luciferases of the present invention display remarkable and heretofore unrealized thermostability at 22° C. in an aqueous solution and at temperatures at least as high as 60° C. in an aqueous solution. For example, the luciferases of the invention are thermostable for at least 10 hours at 50° C.; for at least 2 hours, preferably at least 5 hours, more preferably at least 10 hours, and even more preferably at least 24 hours, at 60° C.; and/or for at least 100 days, preferably at least 200 days, more preferably at least 500 days, and even more preferably at least 800 days, at 22° C., in aqueous solution. For example, after 30 days at 22° C. in an aqueous solution, a thermostable luciferase of the invention lost less than 5% luminescence activity. Preferably, the thermostable luciferases of the invention have enhanced luminescence intensity, enhanced signal stability, enhanced substrate utilization, and/or decreased Km, relative to a reference, e.g., a native wild-type, luciferase. The invention is further directed to the mutant luciferase genes (e.g., cDNA or RNA) which encode the novel luciferase enzymes. The terminology used herein is, e.g., for the mutants isolated in experiment 90, plate number 1, well B5, the E. coli strain is 90-1 B5, the mutant gene is luc90-1B5, and the mutated luciferase is Luc90-1 B5.

As defined herein, a “thermostable” enzyme, e.g., a luciferase, or an enzyme which has “thermostability”, is an enzyme which under certain conditions, e.g., at certain temperature, in aqueous solution and/or for certain periods of time, has an increased retention of activity relative to a reference enzyme. For example, for a thermostable luciferase, a reference luciferase may be native wild-type luciferase or recombinant wild-type luciferase. Preferably, for beetle luciferases, the activity is luminescence under conditions of saturation with luciferin and ATP. One measure of thermostability of an enzyme is the half-life of the enzyme in an aqueous solution (the time over which 50% of the activity is lost) at a stated temperature.

The invention further encompasses expression vectors and other genetic constructs containing the mutant luciferases, as well as hosts, bacterial and otherwise, transformed to express the mutant luciferases. The invention is also drawn to compositions and kits which contain the novel luciferases, and use of these luciferases in any methodology where luciferases are employed.

Various means of random mutagenesis were applied to a luciferase gene (nucleotide sequence), most particularly gene synthesis using an error-prone polymerase, to create libraries of modified luciferase genes. This library was expressed in colonies of E. coli and visually screened for efficient luminescence to select a subset library of modified luciferases. Lysates of these E. coli strains were then made, and quantitatively measured for luciferase activity and thermostability. From this, a smaller subset of modified luciferases was chosen, and the selected mutations were combined to make composite modified luciferases. New libraries were made from the composite modified luciferases by random mutagenesis and the process was repeated. The luciferases with the best overall performance were selected after several cycles of this process.

Methods of producing improved luciferases include directed evolution using a polynucleotide. sequence encoding a first beetle luciferase as a starting (parent) sequence, to produce a polynucleotide sequence encoding a second luciferase with increased thermostability, compared to the first luciferase, while maintaining other characteristics of the enzymes. A cDNA designated lucPpe2 encodes a firefly luciferase derived from Photuris pennsylvanica that displays increased thermostability as compared to the widely utilized luciferase designated LucPpy from Photinus pyralis. The cDNA encoding LucPpe2 was isolated, sequenced and cloned (see Leach et al., 1997). A mutant of this gene encodes a first luciferase LucPpe2 [T249M]. However, the methods of the invention are not limited to use with a polynucleotide sequence encoding a beetle luciferase, i.e., the methods of the invention may be employed with a polynucleotide sequence encoding other enzymes.

In an embodiment of a mutant luciferase, the amino acid sequence is that of LucPpe2 shown in FIG. 45 with the exception that at residue 249 there is a M (designated T249M) rather than the T reported by Leach et al. The underlined residue (249) shows mutation from T to M. This enzyme produced approximately 5-fold more light in vivo when expressed in E. coli.

Diluted extracts of recombinant E. coli that expressed mutant luciferases made by the methods of the invention were simultaneously screened for a plurality of characteristics including light intensity, signal stability, substrate utilization (K_(m)), and thermostability. A fully automated robotic system was used to screen large numbers of mutants in each generation of the evolution. After several cycles of mutagenesis and screening, thereby creating mutant libraries of luciferases, an increased thermostability compared to LucPpe2 [T249M] of about 35° C. was achieved for clone Luc90-1 B5 which also essentially maintained enzymatic activity (there was only negligible loss in activity of 5%) when kept in aqueous solution over 2 hours at 50° C., 5 hours at 65° C., or over 6 weeks at 22° C.

Mutant luciferases of the present invention display increased thermostability for at least 2 hours at 50° C., preferably at least 5 hours at 50° C., and in the range of at least 2 hours, preferably at least 24 hours, and more preferably at least 50 hours, at temperatures including 50° C., 60° C., and/or at temperatures up to 65° C. In particular, the present invention comprises thermostable mutant luciferases which, when solubilized in a suitable aqueous solution, have a thermostability greater than about 2 hours at about 50° C., more preferably greater than about 10 hours at 50° C., and more preferably still greater than 5 hours at 50° C. The present invention also comprises mutant luciferases which, when solubilized in a suitable aqueous solution, have a thermostability greater than about 2 hours, more preferably at least 5 hours, even more preferably greater than about 10 hours, and even more preferably still greater than about 24 hours, at about 60° C. The present invention further comprises mutant luciferases which when solubilized in a suitable aqueous solution have a thermostability greater than about 3 months at about 22° C., and more preferably a thermostability of at least 6 months at 22° C. An embodiment of the invention is a luciferase mutant having thermostability at 65° C., wherein a loss of activity of about 5-6% was found after 6 hours (equivalent to a half-life of 2 days). The half-lives of enzymes from the most stable clones of the present invention, extrapolated from data showing small relative changes, is greater than 2 days at 65° C. (corresponding to 6% loss over 6 hours), and about 2 years at 22° C. (corresponding to 5% loss over 9 weeks).

In particular, the invention comprises luciferase enzymes with embodiments of amino acid sequences disclosed herein (e.g., mutant luciferases designated Luc49-7C6, Luc78-0B10; Luc90-1B5, Luc133-1B2, and Luc146-1 H2, as well as all other beetle luciferases that have thermostability as measured in half-lives of at least 2 hours at 50° C. The invention also comprises mutated polynucleotide sequences encoding luciferase enzymes containing any single mutation or any combination of mutations of the type which convert an amino acid of the reference beetle luciferase into a consensus amino acid. Conserved amino acids are defined as those that occur at a particular position in all sequences in a given set of related enzymes. Consensus amino acids are defined as those that occur at a particular position in more than 50% of the sequences in a given set of enzymes. An example is the set of beetle luciferase sequences shown in FIG. 19, excluding LucPpe2.

Nucleotide sequences encoding beetle luciferases are aligned in FIG. 19. Eleven sequences found in nature in various genera, and species within genera, are aligned, including lucPpe2. There are at least three mutations present in each mutant luciferase that show increased thermostability. In general, mutations are not of a conserved amino acid residue. The mutations in the mutant luciferases are indicated in FIGS. 22-47 by underlining.

The invention also provides methods to prepare enzymes having one or more desired properties, e.g., resistance to inhibition by a substrate analog of the enzyme or enhanced enzymological properties. The method comprises selecting at least one isolated polynucleotide sequence encoding an enzyme with the desired property, e.g., an enzymological property, from a first population of mutated polynucleotide sequences. The selected, isolated polynucleotide sequence is then mutated to yield a second population of mutated polynucleotide sequences. Preferably, a mixture of selected isolated polynucleotide sequences are mutated to yield a second population of mutated polynucleotide sequences. The process may be repeated until a further polynucleotide sequence is obtained, e.g., selected and/or isolated, which further polynucleotide sequence encodes an enzyme which has at least one of the desired properties. As used herein, the terms “isolated and/or “purified” refer to in vitro isolation of a RNA, DNA or polypeptide molecule from its natural cellular environment, and from association with other components of the cell, such as nucleic acid or polypeptide, e.g., so that it can be sequenced, replicated, and/or expressed.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graphical representation of thermostability at 37° C. of LucPpe2[T249M]; Luc39-5B10; and Luc49-7C6, normalized to t=0 [the X-axis is time in minutes; the Y-axis is % remaining activity; and “t” is time].

FIG. 2 is a graphical representation of the remaining activity of Luc49-7C6 and Luc78-0B10 at 50° C. normalized to a t=0 reading [the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is % remaining activity; and t is time].

FIG. 3 is a graphical representation of the luminescence produced by Luc49-7C6 and Luc78-0B10 at 60° C. normalized to t=0 [the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is % remaining activity; and t is time].

FIG. 4 is a graphical representation of thermostability of luciferases, LucPpe2[T249M]; Luc49-7C6; and Luc78-0B10 thermostability at 22° C. [the X-axis is time in days; the Y-axis is normalized light units].

FIG. 5 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by (Y) Luc78-0B10 compared to log luminescence predicted by the regression equation Y=0.0043X+10.91; the half life of the enzyme is calculated as 144 hours (6 days) [the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 6 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by Luc78-0B10 at 60° C. compared to the log luminescence calculated by the regression equation Y=0.154X+10.86; the half life of the enzyme is calculated as 38 hours (1.58 days) [the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 7 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by Luc49-7C6 at 50° C. compared to log luminescence predicted by the regression equation Y=−0.0059X+8.757; the half-life of the enzyme is calculated as 100.5 hours (4.2 days) [the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 8 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by Luc49-7C6 at 60° C. compared to the log luminescence calculated by the regression equation Y=−0.169X+8.647; the calculated half-life of the enzymes is 2.9 hours (the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is log luminescence).

FIG. 9 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by Luc78-0B10 at 22° C. compared to a predicted log luminescence, the half-life of the enzyme is 109 days [the X-axis is time in days; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 10 is a graphical representation of the observed luciferase log luminescence produced by Luc49-7C6 at 22° C. compared to a predicted log luminescence; the half-life of the enzyme is 64 days [the X-axis is time in days; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 11 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by luciferase Luc49-7C6 at 37° C. compared to predicted log luminescence [the X-axis is time in minutes; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 12 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by luciferase LucPpe2 [T249M] at 22° C. compared to predicted log luminescence [the X-axis is time in days; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 13 is a graphical representation of the observed log luminescence produced by luciferase LucPpe2 [T249M] at 37° C. compared to predicted log luminescence [X-axis is time in minutes; Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 14 is a flow chart showing steps for an assay of in vivo and in vitro luciferase luminescence (Li); enzyme stability (τ); assay kinetics (S); and substrate binding (Km).

FIG. 15 is a schematic representation of a table top layout robot.

FIG. 16A is a graphical representation of luciferase mutant Luc90-1B5 luminescence measured at 65° C., pH 6.5 (the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is % luminescence).

FIG. 16B is a graphical representation of luciferase mutant Luc90-1B5 luminescence at 22° C., pH 6.5 (the X-axis is time in days; the Y-axis is % luminescence).

FIG. 17 is a diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among beetle luciferases based on amino acid sequences.

FIG. 18A is a representation of the secondary structures of beetle luciferase enzymes (helices are symbolized by cylinders, sheets by collections of arrows, loops connect helices with sheets).

FIG. 18B shows the amino acids (tertiary structures) of the LucPpe2 luciferase, wherein small spirals correspond to cylinders of FIG. 18A.

FIG. 18C shows that the general beetle architecture matches (is superimposed on) that of Luc90-1B5.

FIG. 19A presents alignment of the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID Nos:27-37) for luciferases from various beetle species (Lcr, Lla, Lmi, Pmi, Ppy, Lno, Ppe1, Phg, GR, YG, Ppe2, respectively) and luciferases of the present invention (Luc49-7C6; Luc78-0B10; Luc90-1B5, Luc133-1B2; and Luc146-1H2, SEQ ID Nos. 14, 19, 24, 44, and 45, respectively); the sequences are aligned, spaces where sequences cannot be aligned are shown by dots (e.g., . . . ); only amino acids that differ in the luciferases of the present invention from those of some beetle species are shown, not the full sequences. “Cons” is a sequence showing conserved amino acids by single letters, and indicates non-conserved amino acids by “-”.

FIG. 19B presents alignment of the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID Nos:27-37) for luciferases from various beetle species (Lcr, Lla, Lmi, Pmi, Ppy, Lno, Ppe1, Phg, GR, YG, Ppe2) and luciferases of the present invention (Luc30-4B02 and Luc81-6G01, SEQ ID Nos. 47 and 26, respectively); the sequences are aligned, spaces where sequences cannot be aligned are shown by dots (e.g., . . . ); amino acids that differ in the luciferases of the present invention from those of some beetle species are shown in bold.

FIG. 19C presents alignment of the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NOs:27-34 and 36-37) for luciferases from various beetle species (Lcr, Lla, Lmi, Pmi, Ppy, Lno, Ppe1, Phg, YG, Ppe2, Ppl); the sequences are aligned, spaces where sequences cannot be aligned are shown by dots (e.g., . . . ); in the line beneath YG, X indicates positions in YG where mutations could yield a consensus amino acid; O indicates positions in YG where mutations could not yield a consensus amino acid.

FIG. 20 is the 7216 bp Ppe2 vector map in a pRAM backbone.

FIG. 21 is a bar graph comparing luminescence as expressed in recombinant colonies of E. coli; the colonies differ in the identity of the luciferase encoding vector (Luc+; Luc90-1B5; Luc78-1B10; Luc49-7C6; LucPpe2 [T249M] and LucPpe2); in the recombinant colony shown in the Y-axis [the X-axis is normalized light units].

FIG. 22 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:1) encoding mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-7C6; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 23 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:2) encoding mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-6C10, mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 24 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:3) encoding a mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-0G12; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 25 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:4) encoding a mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-7A5; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 26 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:5) encoding a mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-4G11; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 27 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:14) of the mutant luciferase designated Luc49-7C6; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 28 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:15) of mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-6C10; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 29 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:16) of mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-0G12; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 30 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:17) of mutant luciferase enzyme Luc49-7A5; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 31 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:18) of mutant luciferase enzyme Luc494G11; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 32 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:6) encoding mutant luciferase enzyme Luc78-0B10; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 33 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:7) encoding mutant luciferase enzyme Luc78-0G8; mutations are indicated by underlining; X's signify unknown identities of nucleotides at certain positions.

FIG. 34 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:8) encoding mutant luciferase enzyme Luc78-1E1; mutations are by underlining; X's signify that the identity of a nucleotide at a position is unknown.

FIG. 35 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:9) encoding a mutant luciferase Luc78-2B4; underlined nucleotides are mutations; X's signify unknown identities of nucleotides at certain positions.

FIG. 36 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:19) of the mutant luciferase Luc78-OB10; underlined amino acids are mutations.

FIG. 37 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:20) of the mutant luciferase enzyme Luc78-0G8; underlined amino acids are mutations; X's signify unknown amino acids at a position.

FIG. 38 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:21) for mutant luciferase enzyme Luc78-1E1; underlined amino acids are mutations; X's signify an unknown amino acid at a position.

FIG. 39 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:22) for mutant luciferase enzyme Luc78-2B4; underlined amino acids are mutations; X's signify an unknown amino acid at a position.

FIG. 40 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:10) for encoding a mutant luciferase enzyme Luc85-4F12; underlined nucleotides are mutations; X's signify an unknown amino acid at that position.

FIG. 41 is an amino acid listing (SEQ ID NO:23) for a mutant luciferase enzyme Luc854F12; underlined amino acids are mutations; X's signify an unknown amino acid at that position.

FIG. 42 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:11) encoding mutant luciferase enzyme Luc90-1B5; underlined nucleotides are mutations.

FIG. 43 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:24) for the mutant luciferase designated Luc90-1B5; underlined amino acids are mutated positions.

FIG. 44 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:12) encoding luciferase enzyme LucPpe2 [T249M].

FIG. 45 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:25) for LucPpe2 [T249M]; the underlined amino acid is a mutation from Thr to Met at residue 249.

FIG. 46 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:26) for luciferase enzyme LucPp181-6G1; underlined amino acids are mutations from a starting sequence; X shows ambiguity.

FIG. 47 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:13) encoding luciferase enzyme Luc81-6G1; underlined nucleotides are mutations.

FIG. 48 is a graphical representation of mutant luciferases Luc49-7C6 and Luc78-10B10 luminescence at 60° C. normalized to t=0 [the X-axis is time in hours, the Y-axis is log normalized luminescence].

FIG. 49 is a graphical representation of luciferases LucPpe2 [T249M], Luc49-7C6, and Luc78-0B10, thermostability at 4° C., normalized to initial values [the X-axis is time in days; Y is log normalized light units].

FIG. 50 is a graphical representation of mutant luciferases Luc49-7C6 and Luc78-0B10 luminescence at 50° C. normalized to t=0 [the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 51 is a graphical representation of mutant luciferases Luc49-7C6 and Luc78-0B10 luminescence at 50° C. normalized at t=0.

FIG. 52 is a graphical representation of mutant luciferases Luc49-7C6 and Luc78-0B10 luminescence at 60° C. normalized to t=0 [the X-axis is time in hours; the Y-axis is luminescence].

FIG. 53 is a graphical representation of luciferases LucPpe2 [T249M], Luc49-7C6, and Luc78-0B10 thermostability at 22° C. [the X-axis is time in days; the Y-axis is log luminescence].

FIG. 54A is a graphical representation of luminescence of Luc90-1B5; Luc133-1B2; and Luc146-1H2, at pH 4.5 and 48° C., normalized to t=0.

FIG. 54B is a graphical representation of the half-life of Luc90-1B5; Luc133-1B2; and Luc146-1H2, at pH 4.5 and 48° C. The half-life of Luc90-1B5 under these conditions is about 3 minutes, Luc133-1B2 about 20 minutes, and Luc146-1H2 about 62 minutes.

FIG. 55 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:42) encoding a luciferase enzyme Luc133-1B2; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 56 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:43) encoding a luciferase enzyme Luc146-1H2; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 57 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:44) of mutant luciferase Luc133-1B2; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 58 is an amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:45) of mutant luciferase Luc146-1H2; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 59 is a graphical representation of the signal kinetics of clones Luc49-7C6; Luc78-0B10; Luc90-1B5; Luc133-1B2; and Luc146-1H2 at pH 7.8 at room temperature.

FIG. 60 is a graphical representation of the normalized luminescence at 50° C. pH 7.8 of Luc49-7C6; Luc78-0B10; Luc90-1B5; Luc133-1B2; and Luc146-1H2; from t=0 to about 8 hours.

FIG. 61 is a graphical representation of the resistance of selected luciferases to a substrate inhibitor. The data is presented as the log of the luminescence versus time for Luc90-1B5; Luc133-1B5; and Luc146-1H2.

FIG. 62 is a graphical representation of the log of luminescence over time at 22° C., pH 6.5 for Luc90-1B5 and LucPpe2[T249M].

FIG. 63 is a graphical representation of thermostability of selected mutant luciferases and LucPplYG at room temperature in aqueous solution containing 1% Triton X-100 for up to 20 hours.

FIG. 64 is a graphical representation of the sustained luminescence activity (expressed as luminescence/O.D.) over time for certain luciferases.

FIG. 65 is a nucleotide (DNA) sequence (SEQ ID NO:46) encoding a luciferase enzyme Luc81-0B11; mutations are indicated by underlining.

FIG. 66 is an amino acid SEQ ID NO:47 sequence of mutant luciferase Luc81-0B11; mutations are indicated by underlining.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to enzymes, e.g., beetle luciferases, that are created by mutations made in the encoding genes, generally by recursive mutagenesis, which mutated enzymes have one or more desired properties, for example, increases thermostability, increased resistance to inhibitors, and/or enhanced enzymological properties, relative to a reference enzyme, e.g., the wild-type enzyme. The polynucleotide sequence which encodes an enzyme of the invention comprises mutations that encode a plurality of amino acid substitutions relative to the polynucleotide sequence encoding the enzyme from which the enzyme of the invention was derived. For example, the invention relates to enzymes, e.g., luciferases, that are thermostable. The increased thermostability allows storage of enzymes such as luciferases without altering its activity, and improves reproducibility and accuracy of assays using the mutated luciferases. Thus, one embodiment of the invention comprises isolated polynucleotide sequences (cDNAs) which encode mutant luciferases with increased thermostability, vectors containing the polynucleotide sequences, and hosts transformed to express the polynucleotide sequences. Table 1 shows results of about 250 clones and characteristics of the luciferases from the clones including thermostability. The invention also encompasses the use of the mutant luciferases in any application where luciferases are conventionally utilized, and kits useful for some of the applications.

Unexpectedly, beetle luciferases with the sought after improved thermostability were achieved in the present invention through a process of recursive mutagenesis and selection (sometimes referred to as “directed evolution”). A strategy of recursive mutagenesis and selection is an aspect of the present invention, in particular the use of multi-parameter automated screens. Thus, instead of screening for only a single attribute such as thermostability, simultaneous screening was done for additional characteristics of enzyme activity and efficiency. By this method, one property is less likely to “evolve” at the expense of another, resulting in increased thermostability, but decreased activity, for example.

Table 1 presents examples of parameter values (Li, Tau, K_(m) and S, see below) derived from experiments using different luciferases as starting (parent) sequences. The subtitles refer to designations of the temperature at which the enzyme stability was measured and the starting luciferase, e.g., Luc39-5B10 at 51° C. and so forth. All parameters in each experiment are recorded as relative values to the respective starting sequence, e.g., the parameter values for the starting sequence in any experiment equals “1.” (See Example 2 herein for definitions.

Thermostability has evolved in nature for various enzymes, as evidenced by thermostable isozymes found in thermophilic bacteria. Natural evolution works by a process of random mutagenesis (base substitutions, gene deletions, gene insertions), followed by selection of those mutants with improved characteristics. The process is recursive over time. Although the existence of thermostable enzymes in nature suggests that thermostability can be achieved through mutagenesis on an evolutionary scale, the feasibility of achieving a given level of thermostability for a particular class of enzymes by using short term laboratory methods was unpredictable. The natural process of evolution, which generally involves extremely large populations and many millions of generations and genes, by mutation and selection cannot be used to predict the capabilities of a modern laboratory to produce improved genes by directed evolution until such mutants are produced.

After such success, because the overall three-dimensional structure of all beetle luciferases are quite similar, having shown it possible for one member of this class makes it predictable that high thermostability can be achieved for other beetle luciferases by similar methods. FIG. 17 shows an evolutionary relationship among beetles luciferases, all of which have a similar overall architecture. The structural class to which the beetle luciferases belong is determined by the secondary structure (e.g. helices are symbolized by cylinders, sheets by collections of arrows, loops connect helices with sheets (FIG. 18A). FIG. 18B shows the amino acids of the LucPpe2 luciferase wherein small spirals correspond to cylinders of FIG. 18A; FIG. 18C shows that the general beetle architecture matches (is superimposed on) that of LucPpe2. This is support for the expectation that the methods of the present invention can be generalized to all beetles luciferases.

Enzymes belong to different structural classes based on the three-dimensional arrangement of secondary elements such as helices, sheets, and loops. Thermostability is determined by how efficiently the secondary elements are packed together into a three-dimensional structure. For each structural class, there also exists a theoretical limit for thermostability. All beetle luciferases belong to a common structural class as evident by their common ancestry (FIG. 17), homologous amino acid sequences, and common catalytic mechanisms.

The application of a limited number of amino acid substitutions by mutagenesis is unlikely to significantly affect the overall three-dimensional architecture (i.e., the structural class for mutant luciferases is not expected to change.) Because the theoretical limit for thermostability for any structural class is not known, the potential thermostability of beetle luciferases was not known until demonstrations of the present invention.

A priori difficulties in achieving the goals of the present invention included:

1. The types of mutations which can be made by laboratory methods are limited.

i) By random point mutation (e.g. by error-prone PCR), more than one base change per codon is rare. Thus, most potential amino acid changes are rare.

ii) Other types of random genetic changes are difficult to achieve for areas greater than 100 bp (e.g., random gene deletions or insertions).

2. The number of possible luciferase mutants that can be screened is limited.

i) Based on sequence comparisons of natural luciferases, ignoring deletions and insertions, more than 10¹⁸⁹ functional enzyme sequences may be possible.

ii) If 100,000 clones could be screened per day, it would require more than 10¹⁷⁹ centuries to screen all possible mutants assuming same mutant was never screened twice (actual screening rate for the present invention was less than 5000 per day).

3. The probability of finding functional improvement requiring cooperative mutations is rare (the probability of finding a specific cooperative pair is 1 out of 108 clones).

Thus, even if the theoretical limits of thermostability were known, because only a very small number of the possible luciferase mutants can be screened, the a priori probability of finding such a thermostable enzyme was low.

However, the present invention now shows that it is possible and feasible to create novel beetle luciferases having high thermostability.

a) The approximately 250 mutants produced by methods of the present invention wherein the initial sequence was from lucPpe2 or lucPplYG demonstrate that it is possible and feasible for at least one member of this enzyme class to achieve high thermostability.

b) Any beetle luciferase can be improved by similar means because the luciferases belong to the same structural class.

-   -   i) Because all beetle luciferases belong to the same structural         class, they also share in the same pool of potentially         stabilizing mutations (this conclusion is supported by         observation that a high percentage of the stabilizing mutations         found in the clones of the present invention were conversions to         “consensus amino acids” in other beetle luciferases that is,         amino acids that appear in the majority of beetle luciferase         sequences (see FIG. 19).     -   ii) Similar results were achieved using beetle luciferase,         consisting largely of a different amino acid sequence, from the         luminous beetle Pyrophorus plagiophthalamus (LucPplYG). The         wild-type lucPplYG has 48% nucleotide sequence identity to the         wild type lucPpe2. The LucPplYG mutants were subjected to fewer         cycles of directed evolution than the LucPpe2 mutants described         herein. Also, in some instances, mutants were selected with less         emphasis placed on their relative thermostability. The most         stable clone resulting from this evolution (Luc80-5E5) has a         half-life of roughly 3.8 hours at 50° C. in solution.

To compensate for a statistical effect caused by the large number of deleterious random mutations expected relative to the beneficial mutations, methods were employed to maximize assay precision and to re-screen previously selected mutations in new permutations. Among the methods for maximizing assay precision were closely controlling culture conditions by using specialized media, reducing growth rates, controlling heat transfer, and analyzing parameters from mid-logarithmic phase growth of the culture. The robotic processes maximized for precision include controlling mixing, heat transfers, and evaporation of samples in the robotic screening process; and normalizing data to spatially distributed control samples. New permutations of the selected mutations were created by a method of DNA shuffling using proof-reading polymerases.

The difficulty in predicting the outcome of the recursive process is exemplified by the variable success with the other characteristics of luciferase that were also selected for. Although the primary focus was on the enzyme thermostability, selection for mutants producing brighter luminescence, with more efficient substrate utilization, and an extended luminescence signal was also attempted. The definitions are given by equations herewith. The selection process was determined by changes relative to the parent clones for each iteration of the recursive process. The amount of the change was whatever was observed during the screening process. The expression of luciferase in E. coli was relatively inefficient, for LucPpe2, compared to Luc+. Other luciferases varied (see FIG. 21).

To improve the overall efficiency of substrate utilization, reduction in the composite apparent utilization constant (i.e., Km[ATP+luciferin]) for both luciferin and ATP was sought. Although there was an unexpected systematic change in each utilization constant (Km[ATP], Km[luciferin]), there was little overall change. Finally, the luminescence signal could only be moderately affected without substantially reducing enzyme efficiency. Thus, although the enzyme thermostability was greatly increased by methods of the present invention, other characteristics of the enzyme were much less affected.

FIGS. 1-13, 16, 48-53, 60 and 62 present measurements of thermostability of mutant luciferases. FIGS. 48-53 present other results of the mutant luciferases. Compositions of the invention include luciferases having greater than the natural level of thermostability. Each mutant luciferase is novel, because its individual characteristics have not been reported. Specific luciferases are known by both their protein and gene sequences. Many other luciferases were isolated that have increased, high thermostability, but whose sequences are not known. These luciferases were identified during the directed evolution process, and were recognized as distinct by their enzymological characteristics. The mutant luciferases of the present invention, e.g., Luc90-1B5, can display remarkable and heretofore unrealized thermostability at temperatures ranging from 22° C. to at least as high as 60° C.

Other aspects of the invention include methods that incorporate the thermostable luciferases, specifically beetle luciferases having high thermostability, as well as methods to prepare an enzyme, including a luciferase, having one or more desired properties, e.g., resistance to inhibition by a substrate inhibitor, or enhanced enzymological properties. Thus, the invention also provides a method to prepare an enzyme which has at least one enhanced enzymological property. From a population of polynucleotide sequences encoding the enzyme which is derived from a first polynucleotide sequence encoding the enzyme which is subject to mutation, at least one polynucleotide sequence encoding an enzyme which has the enhanced enzymological activity is selected and isolated. In one embodiment, oligonucleotide-mediated mutagenesis is then employed to introduce at least one codon which encodes a consensus amino acid to at least one of the selected, isolated polynucleotide sequences encoding the enzymes to yield a further polynucleotide sequence encoding the enzyme and having the codon which encodes the consensus amino acid, wherein the codon which is introduced is not present in the first polynucleotide sequence.

Production of Luciferases of the Present Invention

The method of making luciferases with increased thermostability is recursive mutagenesis followed by selection. Embodiments of the highly thermostable mutant luciferases of the invention were generated by a reiterative process of random point mutations beginning with a source nucleotide sequence, e.g., the lucPpe2 [T249M] cDNA. Recombination mutagenesis is a part of the mutagenesis process, along with point mutagenesis. Both recombination mutagenesis and point mutagenesis are performed recursively. Because the mutation process causes recombination of individual mutants in a fashion similar to the recombination of genetic elements during sexual reproduction, the process is sometimes referred to as the sexual polymerase chain reaction (sPCR). See, for instance, Stemmer, U.S. Pat. No. 5,605,793, issued Feb. 25, 1997.

Taking the lucPpe2 cDNA sequence as a starting point, the gene was mutated to yield mutant luciferases which are far more thermostable. A single point mutation to the lucPpe2 sequence yielded the luciferase whose sequence is depicted as T249M. This mutant is approximately 5 times brighter in vivo than that of lucPpe2, it was utilized as a template for further mutation. It was also used a baseline for measuring the thermostability of the other mutant luciferases described herein.

Embodiments of Sequences of Luciferases of the Present Invention

FIG. 45 shows the amino acid sequence of the LucPpe2 luciferase (T249M). The sequence contains a single mutation at position 249 from T to M (underlined) which distinguishes it from the sequence reported by Leach et al. (1997). This luciferase has a spectral maximum of 552 nm, which is yellow shifted from that of the luciferase of Leach et al. This mutant was selected for use as an original template in some of the Examples because it is approximately 5 times brighter in vivo, than the form reported by Leach et al. which allowed for more efficient screening by the assay. These sequences show changes from the starting sequence (T249M) by underlining. Note that “x” in the sequence denotes an ambiguity in the sequence.

Directed Evolution, A Recursive Process

Directed evolution is a recursive process of creating diversity through mutagenesis and screening for desired changes. For enzymological properties that result from the cumulative action of multiple amino acids, directed evolution provides a means to alter these properties. Each step of the process typically produces small changes in enzyme function, but the cumulative effect of many rounds of this process can lead to substantial overall change.

The characteristic, “thermostability” is a candidate for directed evolution because it is determined by the combined action of many of the amino acids making up the enzyme structure. Luminescence output and efficiency of substrate binding of the modified luciferase were also screened. This was to ensure that changes in thermostability did not also produce undesirable changes in other important enzymological properties.

Because the frequency of deleterious mutations is much greater than useful mutations, it is likely that undesirable clones are selected in each screen within the precision limits of the present invention. To compensate for this, the screening strategy incorporated multiple re-screens of the initially selected mutations. However, before re-screening, the selected mutations were “shuffled” to create a library of random intragenetic recombinations. This process allows beneficial mutations among different clones to be recombined together into fewer common coding sequences, and unlinks deleterious mutations to be segregated and omitted. Thus, although essentially the same set of selected mutations was screened again, they were screened under different permutations as a result of the recombination or shuffling.

Although results of each step of the evolutionary process were assayed by quantitative measurements, these measurements were mutually made in cell lysates rather than in purified enzymes. Furthermore, each step only measured changes in enzyme performance relative to the prior step, so global changes in enzyme function were difficult to judge.

Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of various clones obtained using the methods of the invention.

TABLE 1 Enzyme Substrate Signal Luminescence stability binding stability Experiment Clone ID (Li) (tau) (Km) (S) Control is Luc39-5B10 at 51° C. 40 0a7 1.04 4.5 0.78 1 40 5h4 1.29 1.61 1.16 0.953 40 0c2 1.13 1.54 0.91 0.998 40 5g4 1 1.4 0.85 1 40 6d3 1.02 1.37 0.79 1 40 1g4 1.06 1.28 0.77 0.985 40 1d4 1.69 1.23 0.73 1 40 0h9 1.26 1.21 0.63 0.998 40 2f6 3 1.07 0.49 0.981 40 7d6 3.09 1.058 1.09 1.013 40 5a7 4.3 1.025 0.93 1.008 40 4c8 1 1 0.33 1.004 41 7h7 0.73 2.4 2.1 0.995 41 5a5 0.77 1.93 2.7 1.002 41 2c12 1.06 1.7 0.91 1.003 41 6e5- 1.16 1.62 1.53 0.997 41 4e5- 1.08 1.37 1.4 1.004 41 6g7 1.3 1.27 1.39 0.999 41 1h4 1.36 1.24 0.56 0.994 41 0c11 4.1 1.23 1.24 0.996 41 2h9 5.3 1.01 0.83 0.986 42 6b10 0.97 3.6 0.97 0.997 42 1c3 0.91 2.1 0.6 0.998 42 7h9 0.8 1.8 0.8 0.982 42 6b2 0.77 1.72 0.8 0.978 42 6d6 0.83 1.7 0.733 0.975 42 4e10- 0.77 1.63 1.8 0.954 42 1b5 0.83 1.41 1.05 0.955 42 6e6- 0.71 1.16 0.89 0.955 42 3a9 0.85 1.3 0.86 0.997 42 6b6 2.7 1.3 0.91 1.02 42 6e9- 1.5 1.27 0.98 1.01 42 3h11 1.73 1.21 0.63 0.985 42 1a2 1.11 1.17 0.77 1.005 42 3f7 0.49 1.16 1.13 0.944 42 1a4 2 1.01 0.76 0.996 Control is Luc40-0A7 at 54° C. 46 2h3 0.86 6.4 0.37 0.96 46 4a9 0.67 5.7 0.66 0.997 46 2g4 0.65 5.3 0.78 0.96 46 5d12 0.94 4.9 0.94 1.002 46 1h11 1.02 4.8 0.84 0.998 46 5a10 1.23 4.4 0.81 0.9842 46 0a8 1.35 4.3 0.89 1 46 4d3 0.51 3.6 0.65 0.975 46 2a3 1.17 2.9 0.57 0.988 46 3b11 1.39 2.5 0.63 1.02 46 7g12 1.49 2.5 0.91 1.02 46 0g9 1.86 2.25 0.5 0.998 46 7h8 1.07 1.36 0.52 0.99 46 1g8 0.3 1.31 0.72 0.92 46 1d3 1.74 1.13 1.02 1.001 46 0c3 1.68 1.01 0.74 1.01 46 5c11 0.82 1.01 0.6 0.95 Control is Luc46-2H3 at 54° C. 49 6c10 0.57 2.2 0.98 1 49 7c6 1.12 1.9 0.93 1.01 49 0g12 1 1.58 0.69 1.08 49 7a5 1.08 1.44 1.1 0.99 49 1f6 0.66 1.13 1.04 1.006 49 0b5 0.76 1.07 1.03 0.98 49 4a3 0.94 1.06 0.77 1 Control is Luc49-7C6 at 56° C. 56 2d12 0.97 2.9 0.29 1.006 56 5g10 1.01 2.77 0.64 1.007 56 3d5 1.32 2.25 1.85 1.0 57 3d1 1.06 2.9 1.05 1.02 57 6g12 1 2.7 0.87 1.004 57 4c1 0.79 2.6 0.93 1.014 57 5f10 0.72 1.9 0.64 1.03 57 1e6- 0.84 1.49 0.984 0.9871 57 1h2 0.94 1.43 0.68 0.991 57 2a6 1.08 1.08 0.89 0.9976 58 1g6 1.57 8.9 1.78 1.02 58 0a5 1.53 8.5 1.56 1.05 58 1b1 0.84 8.5 0.6 1.04 58 3g1 1 7.34 0.62 1.006 58 0f3 1.31 6.9 0.57 0.98 58 3e12- 1.06 6.3 0.47 0.996 58 0c7 1.9 4 0.64 1.06 58 0d1 1.03 3.76 0.49 1.03 58 3c7 1.49 3.4 0.55 1.04 58 2a2 1.4 2.2 0.5 1.05 58 2a8 3.2 2 0.81 1.05 58 0f2 2.2 1.92 0.45 1.04 58 1b4 5.1 1.87 1.08 1.09 58 2b3 2.7 1.55 0.57 1.04 58 4g1 4.9 1.2 0.72 1.06 Control is Luc58-0A5 at 58° C. 61 4e9- 1.03 1.84 0.76 1.01 61 1f1 1.02 1.43 0.7 1 61 2e12- 1.56 1.34 0.48 1.003 61 2f2 1.5 1.3 0.32 1.01 61 6b4 1.2 1.26 0.88 0.98 61 4c10 1.46 1.12 1.06 0.99 61 4g11 1.31 1.03 1.43 1.03 61 2f1 1.41 1.02 0.79 0.995 61 2g1 1.3 1 1.17 1 65 6g12 0.87 2.3 0.73 0.9605 65 1h6 0.84 2.2 1.62 0.9598 65 7f5 1.2 1.56 2.07 1.0087 65 5g5 2.3 1.49 0.45 0.9985 65 7h2 1.56 1.27 0.91 1.0658 65 7b2 1.98 1.16 0.6 0.9289 65 0g9 1.36 1.09 1.46 0.9927 65 6c7 1.48 1.06 0.86 0.9967 65 1e12- 1.59 1.05 1.03 0.9582 65 4e2- 1.21 1.05 1.11 0.943 65 6a10 1.7 1.04 0.93 0.992 65 4b9 1.48 1.04 1.61 1.0009 65 6c1 1.36 1.02 0.72 0.9978 68 2g6 1.39 3.9 1.17 0.9955 68 4g3 2 2.5 0.27 0.9927 68 5a3 1.04 1.64 0.65 0.8984 68 2b7 1.04 1.64 5.2 0.9237 68 5d10 2.75 1.36 0.73 1.0078 68 7d12 1.85 1.32 0.66 1.0084 68 7b9 1.8 1.19 0.56 1.0052 68 7b3 1.2 1.16 0.55 0.9951 68 1g10 1.48 1.05 1.22 1.0025 70 2a7 1.94 4.6 0.7 1.0015 70 3d6 3.5 4.2 0.18 1.03 70 4f8 1.87 4.2 0.69 0.9979 70 7h5 2.4 2.6 0.18 1 70 5h6 3.1 2.3 0.6 0.999 70 7d6 3 2.2 2.29 0.9989 70 5a3 3.1 1.5 0.18 1.0058 70 7d2 2.5 1.4 0.66 1.0126 70 3h7 3.2 1.22 0.23 1.002 70 0h5 2.5 1.15 0.36 0.9992 70 0d7 1.86 1 1.83 0.993 70 1g12 2.42 1 0.26 0.965 71 1d10 1.6 4.5 1.06 1.0065 71 6f11 1.8 4.3 0.98 0.953 71 7h4 3.4 3.6 0.56 1.0045 71 4h3 3.1 3.1 0.42 1.0171 71 1h5 1.31 3.01 1.31 0.9421 71 5e4- 5.4 2.3 0.35 0.994 71 5c1 2.2 2.3 0.89 0.9746 71 0h7 3.6 1.8 0.59 1.0197 71 6h9 23.7 1.71 0.91 1.0064 71 7e3- 5.3 1.7 0.7 1.0028 71 5d4 11.1 1.48 0.35 1.0213 71 2e3- 4 1.47 0.45 0.9654 71 6h11 17.7 1.15 2.8 1.0064 71 2e10- 3 1.1 0.66 0.9588 71 2g2 4.4 1.01 0.44 1.0046 Control is Luc71-5D4 at 60° C. 72 2g6 0.38 3.1 1.58 1.0052 72 5f12 0.81 1.53 1.02 0.9678 72 0d7 0.76 1.44 1.4 0.9838 72 5c12 0.87 1.43 1.04 0.9718 72 1e1- 1.04 1.41 1.15 0.9956 72 5b12 0.83 1.41 1.02 0.9731 72 0b7 1.11 1.04 0.91 1.0049 72 3b4 0.49 1.03 2.2 0.9581 73 2h8 0.85 1.9 1.08 1.0123 73 4e6- 0.95 1.76 0.94 0.9939 73 3g8 0.86 1.53 1.04 1 73 1g3 1.7 1.14 0.97 0.9921 74 2a9 0.96 1.77 0.86 0.999 74 4e10- 0.8 1.36 1.33 0.09897 74 0d5 1.69 1.28 0.61 0.9927 74 6g7 1.75 1.07 1.33 1.0022 74 5d8 0.46 1.06 0.95 0.899 74 5e7- 1.22 1.05 0.87 0.9977 74 6e1- 1.19 1.02 0.96 0.999 76 6c3 2.3 6.4 1.2 0.9865 76 2a9 0.93 4.7 1.08 0.999 76 3h9 1.26 2.6 1.02 0.9973 76 0b10 1.52 2.4 1.4 0.992 76 0h9 1.71 1.44 1.05 1.018 76 2e9- 0.44 1.15 1.2 0.9318 76 0e10- 1.67 1.1 1.02 1.014 76 0c10 1.13 1.05 1 0.9974 76 3e8- 1.35 1.03 1.1 0.9894 76 0d12 0.69 1 0.92 0.932 76 0f10 0.62 1 1.2 0.9478 78 1e1- 0.54 8.9 1.15 0.9877 78 0h7 1.4 5 0.97 1.014 78 0a6 1 4.3 1.5 0.9967 78 0b10 1.93 2 1 0.9926 78 0f11 1.6 2 0.91 0.9905 78 3f1 2.4 1.7 1.09 0.9936 78 2b4 1.97 1.36 0.98 1.0094 78 5b3 3.2 1.19 1.03 0.9735 78 2g12 2.5 1.03 1 1.0134 78 0h2 1.6 1 1.15 1.0168 Control is Luc78-0B10 at 62° C. 82 2g12 0.9811 2.09 0.8851 0.9939 82 4b9 1.0845 1.8419 0.8439 1.0078 82 0d1 0.7622 1.5171 1.11 0.9998 82 3g1 0.8805 1.504 0.9629 0.9927 82 1d1 0.9741 1.4497 0.8936 0.9986 82 1e8- 0.8206 1.4433 0.9876 0.9968 82 0h9 1.1355 1.3626 0.9171 1.0094 82 2c6 1.0931 1.3402 0.9482 1.0022 82 3g9 1.0364 1.251 0.968 1.0009 82 4h8 0.8816 1.1667 0.9165 1.0045 82 0a10 1.0535 1.1128 1.0413 1 82 4g1 1.4305 1.0862 1.1734 1.0059 84(121) 6h7 0.3755 29.3639 2.3636 0.8905 84(121) 2h9 0.4264 28.7958 1.819 0.904 84(121) 3f7 0.4161 25.3058 1.8079 0.8988 84(121) 2h10 0.9667 14.4658 0.8073 0.9947 84(121) 3a2 0.3329 12.6 2.5444 0.855 84(121) 3a6 1.2299 7.2384 0.7866 1.0046 84(121) 5b12 1.0535 6.0315 0.7824 1.0056 84(121) 5a7 1.0413 4.9054 0.8864 1.0071 84(121) 3d2 0.2032 4.8 2.4623 0.7973 84(121) 2a9 1.0847 4.7486 0.7746 1.0051 84(121) 5e11- 1.1918 4.0988 0.872 1.008 84(121) 7h2 0.9115 3.9929 0.909 1.0077 84(121) 3b5 1.2014 3.8251 0.7509 1.0086 84(121) 1f8 1.07 3.06 0.8276 1.0093 84(121) 2e2- 1.4356 1.9315 0.7863 1.0175 Control is Luc84-3A6 at 64° C. 85(86) 2a2 0.2266 12.9013 3.326 0.8705 85(86) 4f12 1.1167 4.7851 0.7439 1.0092 85(86) 4e9- 1.0869 4.4953 0.8539 1.0068 85(86) 1f11 0.6994 4.0976 0.842 1.0124 85(86) 5a4 1.2273 4.09 0.9683 1.0098 85(86) 3e10- 0.8902 3.5342 0.8106 1.0069 85(86) 3e12- 1.0512 3.4883 0.853 1.0054 85(86) 5e4- 0.9562 3.3886 1.0328 1.0069 85(86) 0e6- 0.1494 3.0145 3.6293 0.8269 85(86) 6b1 0.7615 2.5712 0.8695 1.0055 85(86) 6h7 1.0285 2.5401 0.8963 1.0057 85(86) 4b11 0.9816 2.3899 0.7927 1.0063 85(86) 6d7 1.1087 2.0607 0.9042 1.0088 85(86) 2e10- 0.3028 2.0603 1.9649 0.8738 85(86) 2a9 1.448 1.1819 0.9722 1.0046 Control is Luc85-4F12 at 65° C. 88 3c1 1.4439 2.0938 0.9874 0.9976 88 6g1 1.0184 1.2665 1.2184 1.0019 88 3e4- 1.331 1.0996 1.0669 0.9983 89 1a4 1.2565 2.4796 1.0338 0.997 89 3b1 0.7337 1.9976 0.9628 1.0001 89 2b12 1.0505 1.8496 1.0069 1.0012 89 0b5 1.5671 1.1362 1.0912 0.9995 89 1f1 1.378 1.1018 0.9804 0.996 89 2f1 1.4637 1.0894 0.9189 0.9992 90 0f1 1.4081 1.3632 1.027 0.9987 90 1b5 1.4743 1.1154 1.0812 1.0011 90 6g5 1.2756 1.0605 1.0462 1.0012 90 5e6- 1.0556 1.0569 1.1037 1.0011 90 4e3- 1.2934 1.0291 1.0733 1.0002

To evaluate the impact of directed evolution on enzyme function, clones from the beginning, middle and end of the process (Table 2) were purified and analyzed. The clones selected for this analysis were Luc[T249M], Luc49-7C6, and Luc78-0B10. Another clone, Luc90-1B5, created by a subsequent strategy of oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis and screening was also purified for analysis.

TABLE 2 Thermostability Of Luciferase Activity At Different Temperatures (Half-Life In Hours) Room Temperature* 37° C. 50° C. 60° C. Luc[T249M] 110 0.59 0.01 Luc49-7C6 430 68 31 6.3 Luc78-0B10 3000 220 47 15 *about 25° C.

The effect of directed evolution on thermostability was dramatic. At high temperatures, where the parent clone was inactivated almost instantaneously, the mutant enzymes from the related clones showed thermostability over several hours (see also Table 1, and FIGS. 1-3, 5-8, 11, 13, 50-52 and 60). Even at room temperature, these mutants are several fold more thermostable than the parent enzyme (see also FIGS. 4, 9-10, 12, 53, and 62). Subsequent analysis of Luc90-1B5 showed this enzyme to be even more thermostable, having a half-life of 27 hours at 65° C. when tested under the same buffer conditions (FIG. 16A). With some optimization of buffer conditions, this enzyme showed very little activity loss at 65° C. over several hours (citrate buffer at pH 6.5; FIG. 16A). This luciferase was stable at 22° C. over several weeks when incubated at pH 6.5 (FIG. 16B). At times over 100 days at 4° C., the mutant enzymes had increased thermostability. At times of less than 15 days at 4° C., the thermostabilities of the mutants Luc49-7C6 and Luc78-0B10 were not distinguishable from the parent enzyme (FIG. 49).

Kajiyama and Nakamo (1993) showed that a single amino acid substitution of A at position 217; to either I, L, or V, in the firefly luciferase from Luciola lateralis, resulted in a luciferase having increased thermostability. Substitution with leucine produced a luciferase that maintained 70% of its activity after incubation for 1 hour at 50° C. All of the enzymes of the present invention created through directed evolution, are much more stable than this L. lateralis mutant. One clone, Luc90-1B5, maintains 75% activity after 120 hours (5 days) incubation under similar conditions (50° C., 25 mol/L citrate pH 6.5, 150 mmol/L NaCl, 1 mg/mL BSA, 0.1 mmol/L EDTA, 5% glycerol). Interestingly, the LucPpe2 reported by Leach et al. already contains isoleucine at the homologous position described for the L. lateralis mutant.

Although thermostability was the characteristic of interest, clones were selected based on the other enzymological parameters in the screens. By selecting clones having greater luminescence expression, mutants were found that yielded greater luminescence intensity in colonies of E. coli. However, the process showed little ability to alter the kinetic profile of luminescence by the enzymes. This failure suggests that the ability to support steady-state luminescence is integral to the catalytic mechanism, and is not readily influenced by a cumulative effect of many amino acids.

Substrate binding was screened by measuring an apparent composite K_(m) (see Example 2) for luciferin and ATP. Although the apparent composite K_(m) remained relatively constant, later analysis showed that the individual K_(m)'s systematically changed. The K_(m) for luciferin rose while the K_(m) for ATP declined (Table 3). The reason for this change is unknown, although it can be speculated that more efficient release of oxyluciferin or luciferin inhibitors could lead to more rapid enzyme turnover.

Each point mutation, on its own, increases (to a greater or lesser extent) the thermostability of the mutant enzyme relative to the wild-type luciferase. The cumulative effect of combining individual point mutations yields mutant luciferases whose thermostability is greatly increased from the wild-type, often on the order of a magnitude or more.

TABLE 3 Michaelis-Menten Constants for Mutants Created by Directed Evolution K_(m)-luciferin K_(m)-ATP Luc[T249M] 0.32 μM  18 μM Luc49-7C6 0.99 μM  14 μM Luc78-0B10  1.6 μM 3.4 μM Luc90-1B5  2.2 μM 3.0 μM

The following examples illustrate the methods and compositions of the present invention and their embodiments.

EXAMPLE 1 Producing Thermostable Luciferases of the Present Invention Mutagenesis Method.

An illustrative mutagenesis strategy is as follows: From the “best” wild-type luciferase clone, that is a clone with increased thermostability and not appreciably diminished values for other parameters, random mutagenesis was performed by three variations of error-prone PCR. From each cycle of random mutagenesis, 18 of the best clones were selected. DNA was prepared from these clones yielding a total of 54 clones. These clones represent new genetic diversity.

These 54 clones were combined and recombination mutagenesis was performed. The 18 best clones from this population were selected.

These 18 clones were combined with the 18 clones of the previous population and recombination mutagenesis was performed. From this screening, a new luciferase population of 18 clones was selected representing 6 groups of functional properties.

In this screening the new mutations of the selected 54 clones, either in their original sequence configurations or in recombinants thereof, were screened a second time. Each mutation was analyzed on the average about 10 times. Of the 90 clones used in the recombination mutagenesis, it was likely that at least 10 were functionally equivalent to the best clone. Thus, the best clone or recombinants thereof should be screened at least 100 times. Since this was greater than the number of clones used in the recombination, there was significant likelihood of finding productive recombination of the best clone with other clones.

Robotic Processing Methods.

Heat transfers were controlled in the robot process by using thick aluminum at many positions where the 96-well plates were placed by the robotic arm. For example, all shelves in the incubators or refrigerator were constructed from ¼ inch aluminum. One position in particular, located at room temperature, was constructed from a block of aluminum of dimensions 4.5×7×6.5 inches. When any 96-well plate was moved from a high temperature (e.g., incubators) or low temperature (e.g., refrigerator) to a device at room temperature, it was first placed on the large aluminum block for temperature equilibration. By this means, the entire plate would rapidly reach the new temperature, thus minimizing unequal evaporation for the various wells in the plate due to temperature differences. Heat transfers in a stack of 96-well plates placed in an incubator (e.g., for overnight growth of E. coli) were controlled by placing 1 mm thick sheets of aluminum between the plates. This allowed for more efficient heat transfer from the edges of the stack to the center. Mixing in the robotic process was controlled by having the plate placed on a shaker for several second after each reagent addition.

Please refer to FIG. 14 for a schematic of the order in which the plates are analyzed and to FIG. 15 for a robotic apparatus which can be programmed to perform the following functions:

1. Culture Dilution Method.

A plate with lid (Falcon 3075) containing cells (E. coli JM109) is placed on a shaker and mixed for 3-5 minutes.

A plate (with lid) is obtained from a carousel and placed in the reagent dispenser. 180 μl of media (M9 minimal media) is added after removing the lid and placing on the locator near the pipetter. The plate is then placed in the pipetter.

The plate on the shaker is placed in the pipetter, and the lid removed and placed on the locator. Cells are transferred to the new plate using pipetting procedure (see “Dilution of Cells into New Cell Plate”).

The lids are replaced onto both plates. The new plate is placed in the refrigerator and the old plate is returned to the carousel.

2. Luminescence Assay Method.

A plate containing cells is retrieved from the carousel and placed on the shaker for 3-5 minutes to fully mix the cells. The cells tend to settle from solution upon standing.

To measure Optical Density (O.D.), the plate is moved from the shaker to the locator near the luminometer; the lid is removed and the plate placed into the luminometer. The O.D. is measured using a 620 nm filter.

When it is finished, the plate is then placed in the refrigerator for storage.

The above steps are completed for all plates before proceeding with subsequent processing.

To prepare a cell lysate, the plate of cells is first retrieved from the refrigerator and mixed on the shaker to resuspend the cells. A new plate from the carousel without a lid is placed in the reagent dispenser and 20 μl of Buffer A is added to each well. This is placed in the pipetting station.

The plate of cells in the shaker is placed in the pipetting station. A daughter plate is prepared using pipetting procedure (see “Pipetting Cells into the Lysis Plate”) to prepare a daughter plate of cells.

After pipetting, the new daughter plate is placed on the shaker for mixing.

After mixing, the Lysate Plate is placed into a solid CO₂ freezing station to freeze the samples. The plate is then moved to the thaw block to thaw for 10 minutes.

The plate is then moved to the reagent dispenser to add 175 μl of Buffer B, and then mixed on the shaker for about 15 minutes or more. The combination of the freeze/thaw and Buffer B will cause the cells to lyse.

A new plate with a lid from the carousel is used to prepare the dilution plate from which all assays will be derived. The plate is placed in the reagent dispenser and the lid removed to the locator near the pipetter. 285 μl of Buffer C is added to each well with the reagent dispenser, then the plate is placed in the pipetting station.

The Lysate Plate in the shaker is moved to the pipetting station and pipetting procedure (see “Dilution from Lysis Plate to Incubation Plate”) is used. After pipetting, the new daughter plate is placed on the shaker for mixing. The Lysate Plate is discarded.

Two white assay plates (Labsystems #9502887) are obtained from the plate feeder and placed in the pipetter. The incubation plate from the shaker is placed in the pipetter, and the lid removed and placed on the nearby locator. Two daughter plates are made using the pipetting procedure (see “Create Pair of Daughter Plates from Incubation Plate”). Afterwards, the lid is replaced on the parent plate, and the plate is placed in a high temperature incubator. [ranging from 31° C. to about 65° C. depending on the clone.]

One daughter plate is placed in the luminometer and the 1X assay method is used. After the assay, the plate is placed in the ambient incubator, and the second daughter plate is placed in the luminometer. For the second plate, the 0.02X assay method is used. This plate is discarded, and the first plate is returned from the incubator to the luminometer. The repeat assay method is used (i.e., no reagent is injected). Afterwards, the plate is again returned to the ambient incubator.

The above steps are completed for all plates before proceeding with processing.

To begin the second set of measurements, the plate from the high temperature incubator is placed in the shaker to mix.

The plate in the ambient incubator is returned to the luminometer and the repeat assay method is again used. The plate is returned afterwards to the ambient incubator.

Two white assay plates again are obtained from the plate feeder and placed in the pipetter. The plate on the shaker is placed in the pipetter, and the lid removed and placed on the nearby locator. Two daughter plates are again made using the pipetting procedure (see “Create Pair of Daughter Plates from Incubation Plate”). Afterwards, the lid is replaced on the parent plate, and the plate is returned to the high temperature incubator.

One daughter plate is placed in the luminometer and the 1X assay method is again used. The plate is discarded after the assay. The second daughter plate is then placed in the luminometer and the 0.06X assay method is used. This plate is also discarded.

The above steps are completed for all plates before proceeding with processing.

In the final set of measurements, the plate from the high temperature incubator is again placed in the shaker to mix.

The plate in the ambient incubator is returned to the luminometer and the repeat assay method is again used. The plate is discarded afterwards.

One white assay plate is taken from the plate feeder and placed in the pipetter. The plate from the shaker is placed in the pipetter, and the lid removed and placed on the nearby locator. One daughter plate is made using the pipetting procedure (see “Create Single Daughter Plate from Incubation Plate”). The lid is replaced on the parent plate and the plate is discarded.

The daughter plate is placed in the luminometer and the 1X assay method is used. The plate is discarded after the assay.

Buffers and Assay Reagents

Buffer A: 325 mM K₂HPO₂; 6.5 mM CDTA; 0.1% Triton X-100

Buffer B: 1× CCLR (Promega E153A); 1.25 mg/ml lysozyme; 0.04% gelatin

Buffer C: 10 mM HEPES; 150 mM NaCl; 1 mg/ml BSA; 5% glycerol; 0.1 mM EDTA

1X Assay reagent: 5 μM Luciferin; 175 μM ATP; 20 mM Tricine, pH 8.0; 0.1 mM EDTA

0.02X Assay reagent: 1:50 dilution of 1X Assay reagent

0.06X Assay reagent: 1:16.7 dilution of 1X Assay reagent

Pipetting Procedures

A. Pipetting Cells into the Lysis Plate

Non-aseptic procedure using fixed tips

On the Pipetter deck:

place a plate containing approximately 200 μl JM109 cells per well without lid

Lysate Plate containing 20 μl of Buffer A

Procedure:

1. Move the tips to the washing station and wash with 1 ml.

2. Move to the cell plate and withdraw 60 μl.

3. Move to the Lysate Plate and dispense 45 μl.

4. Repeat steps 1-3 for all 96 samples.

5. At the conclusion of the procedure, step 1 is repeated to clean the tips.

Post-Procedure:

Place Lysate Plate onto the shaker.

Place lid on plate with cells and place on carousel.

Place Lysate Plate into the CO₂ freezer.

B. Dilution from Lysis Plate to Incubation Plate

On the Pipetter deck:

Lysate Plate containing 240 μl of lysate

Incubation Plate without lid containing 285 μl of Buffer C

Procedure:

1. Move the tips to the washing station and wash with 0.5 ml.

2. Move to the Lysate Plate and withdraw 30 μl.

3. Move to the Incubation Plate and dispense 15 μl by direct contact with the buffer solution.

4. Repeat steps 1-3 for all 96 samples.

5. At the conclusion of the procedure, step 1 is repeated to clean the tips.

Post-Procedure:

Place Incubation Plate on shaker.

Discard Lysate Plate.

C. Create Pair of Daughter Plates from Incubation Plate

This procedure is done twice

On the Pipetter Deck:

Incubation Plate containing 100-300 μl of solution without lid

Two empty Assay Plates (white)

Procedure:

1. Move the tips to the washing station and wash with 0.5 ml.

2. Move to the Incubation Plate and withdraw 50 μl.

3. Move to the first Assay Plate and dispense 20 μl.

4. Move to the second Assay Plate and dispense 20 μl.

5. Repeat steps 1-4 for all 96 samples.

6. At the conclusion of the procedure, step 1 is repeated to clean the tips.

Post-Procedure:

1. Replace lid on Incubation Plate.

2. Place Incubation Plate in incubator.

3. Place first Assay Plate in luminometer.

4. Place second Assay Plate on carousel.

D. Create Single Daughter Plate from Incubation Plate

On the Pipetter Deck:

Place incubation Plate containing 100-300 μl of solution without lid and

Empty Assay Plate (white)

Procedure:

1. Move the tips to the washing station and wash with 0.5 ml.

2. Move to the Incubation Plate and withdraw 40 μl.

3. Move to the Assay Plate and dispense 20 μl.

4. Repeat steps 1-3 for all 96 samples.

5. At the conclusion of the procedure, step 1 is repeated to clean the tips.

Post-Procedure:

Discard Incubation Plate and lid on Incubation Plate.

Place Assay Plate in luminometer.

E. Dilution of Cells into New Cell Plate

Aseptic procedure using fixed tips

On the pipetter deck:

plate containing approximately 200 μl of cells without lid

new cell plate containing 180 μl of Growth Medium without lid

Procedure:

1. Move to the cell plate and withdraw 45 μl.

2. Move to the Cell Plate and dispense 20 μl volume by direct liquid-to-liquid transfer.

3. Move to waste reservoir and expel excess cells.

4. Move to isopropanol wash station aspirate isopropanol to sterilize tips.

5. Move to wash station, expel isopropanol and wash tips.

6. Repeat steps 1-4 for all 96 samples.

Post-Procedure:

Replace lid on original plate of cells and place onto carousel.

Replace lid on new cell plate and place into refrigerator.

Notes:

This procedure is used to prepare the cell plates used in the main analysis procedure. 180 μl of M9 minimal growth medium is added by the reagent dispenser to each of the new cell plates just prior to initiating the pipetting procedure. The dispenser is flushed with 75% isopropanol before priming with medium. The medium also contains selective antibiotics to reduce potential contamination.

Luminometer Procedures

A. 1X Assay Method

1. Place plate into luminometer.

2. Inject 100 μl of 1X Assay reagent.

3. Measure luminescence for 1 to 3 seconds.

4. Repeat for next well.

5. Continue until all wells are measured.

B. 0.02X Assay Method

1. Place plate into luminometer.

2. Inject 100 μl of 0.02X Assay reagent.

3. Measure luminescence for 1 to 3 seconds.

4. Repeat for next well.

5. Continue until all wells are measured.

C. 0.06X Assay Method

1. Place plate into luminometer.

2. Inject 100 μl of 0.06X Assay reagent.

3. Measure luminescence for 1 to 3 seconds.

4. Repeat for next well.

5. Continue until all wells are measured.

D. Repeat Assay

1. Place plate into luminometer.

2. Measure luminescence for 1 to 3 seconds.

3. Repeat for next well.

4. Continue until all wells are measured.

In Vivo Selection Method

Five to seven nitrocellulose disks having 200-500 colonies per disk (1000-3500 colonies total) are screened per 2 microplates (176 clones) (Wood and DeLuca, 1987). The clones are screened at high temperatures using standard screening conditions.

Eight positions in each microplate are reserved from a reference clone using the “best” luciferase (the parent clone for random mutagenesis and codon mutagenesis). The positions of the reserved wells is shown as “X” below.

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The reference clones are made by placing colonies from DNA transformed from the parent clone into the reference wells. To identify these wells prior to inoculation of the microplate, the wells are marked with a black marking pen on the bottom of each well.

Screening Selection Criteria

The following criteria were used for screening purposes. The temperature chosen for the enzyme stability parameter was such that the parent enzyme would decay 100 to 1000 fold over 10 hours (see Table 1). Criteria 1 is achieved manually; data for criteria 2-6 is generated by robotic analysis. For all criteria, the maximum value as described is selected.

1. In vivo screen. The brightest clones are selected at a given temperature.

2. Expression/specific activity. The value for normalized luminescence is calculated as the ratio of luminescence to optical density. The value is reported as the ratio with the reference value.

3. Enzyme stability. Measurements of normalized luminescence of the incubated samples (3 taken over about 15 hours) are fitted to In(L)=In(L₀)−(t/τ), where L is normalized luminescence and t is time. τ is a measure of the enzyme stability. The value is reported as the ratio with the reference value, and the correlation coefficients are calculated.

4. Substrate binding. Measurements of normalized luminescence with 1X and 0.02X are taken at the initial reading set, and 1X and 0.06X are taken at the 5 hour set. The ratio of the 0.02X:1X and 0.06X:1X gives the relative luminescence at 0.02X and 0.06X concentrations. These values, along with the relative luminescence at 1X (i.e., 1), are fitted to a Lineweaver-Burk plot to yield the Km:app,total for the substrates ATP, luciferin, and CoA. The values are reported as the inverse ratio with the reference value, and the correlation coefficients are calculated.

5. Signal stability. The luminescence of the initial IX luminescent reactions are re-measured 3 additional times over about 15 hours. These values are fitted to In(L)=In(L₀)−(t/τ) and the integral over t (15 hours) is calculated. Signal stability is then calculated as S=(1−int(L)/L₀t)². The values are reported as the inverse ratio with the reference value, and the correlation coefficients are calculated.

6. Composite fitness. The values of criteria 2 through 5 are combined into a single composite value of fitness (or commercial utility). This value is based on a judgment of the relative importance of the other criteria. This judgment is given below:

Criteria Relative Value Enzyme Stability 5 Signal Stability 2 Substrate Binding 2 Expression/Activity 1

The composite, C=Sum(criteria 2-5 weighted by relative value, e.g., more weight is on stability because that was a major goal).

EXAMPLE 2 Software

Organize data into SQL database

Each file created by a luminometer (96 well, Anthos, Austria) represents the data from one microplate. These files are stored in the computer controlling the luminometer, and connected to the database computer by a network link. From each microplate of samples, nine microplates are read by the luminometer (the original microplate for optical density and eight daughter microplates for luminescence).

Ninety files are created in total; each containing data sets for 96 samples. Each data set contains the sample number, time of each measurement relative to the first measurement of the plate, luminometer reading, and background corrected luminometer reading. Other file header information is also given. The time that each microplate is read is also needed for analysis. This can be obtained from the robot log or the file creation time. A naming convention for the files is used by the robot during file creation that can be recognized by SQL (e.g. YYMMDDPR.DAT where YY is the year, MM is the month, DD is the day, P is the initial plate [0-9], and R is the reading [0-8]).

Data Reduction and Organization

Normalize luminescence data: For each measurement of luminescence in the eight daughter plates, the normalized luminescence is calculated by dividing the relative light units by the optical density of the original plate. If any value of normalized luminescence is less than zero, assign the value of 0.1 sL where sL is the standard deviation for measurements of normalized luminescence.

Calculate relative measurement time: For each normalized luminescence measurement, the time of the measurement is calculated relative to the first measurement of the sample. For example, the times of all luminescence measurements of sample B6 in plate 7 (i.e., 7:B06) are calculated relative to the first reading of 7:B06. This time calculation involves both the time when the plate is read and the relative time of when the sample is read in the plate.

Calculate enzyme stability (τ): For each sample, use linear regression to fit In(L_(1x))=In(L₀)−(t/τ) using the three luminescence measurements with 1X substrate concentrations (Plates 1, 5, 8). Also calculate the regression coefficient.

Calculate substrate binding (K_(m:app,total)): Using microplates from the first set of readings (Plates 1 and 2), calculate the L_(0.2x,rel) by dividing measurements made with substrate concentrations of 0.02X by those of 1X. Similarly, calculate the L_(0.06x,rel) using microplates of the second set of readings (Plates 5 and 6), by dividing measurements made with substrate concentrations of 0.06X by those of 1X.

For each sample, use linear regression to fit 1/L=(K_(m:app,total)/L_(max:app)) (1/[S])+(1/L_(max.app)) using

L [S] L_(0.02x,rel) 0.02 L_(0.06x,rel) 0.06 1 (L_(1x,rel)) 1

K_(m:app,total) is calculated as the slope/intercept. Also calculate the regression coefficient.

Calculate signal stability (S): For each sample, use linear regression to fit In(L)=In(L₀)τ(t/τ) using the four luminescence measurements of the initial microplate with 1X substrate concentrations (Plates 1, 3, 4, and 7). Also calculate the regression coefficient. From the calculated values of T and L₀, calculate the integral of luminescence by int(L)=τL₀(1−exp(−t_(f)/τ)), where t_(f) is the average time of the last measurement (e.g., 15 hours). The signal stability is calculated as S=(1−int(L)/L_(i)t_(f))², where L_(i) is the initial measurement of normalized luminescence with 1× substrate concentration (Plate 1).

[Note: To correct for evaporation, an equation S=(1+K−int(L)/L_(i)t_(f))², may be used where 1/K=2(relative change of liquid volume at t_(f)).]

Calculate the reference value surfaces: A three dimensional coordinate system can be defined by using the grid positions of the samples within a microplate as the horizontal coordinates, and the calculated values for the samples (L_(i), τ, K_(m:app,total), or S) as the vertical coordinates. This three dimensional system is referred to as a “plate map”. A smooth surface in the plate maps representing a reference level can be determined by least squares fit of the values determined for the 8 reference clones in each microplate. For each of the 10 initial microplates of samples, respective reference surfaces are determined for the criteria parameters L_(i), τ K_(m:app,total), and S (40 surfaces total).

In the least squares fit, the vertical coordinates (i.e., the criteria parameters) are the dependent variables, the horizontal coordinates are the independent variables. A first order surface (i.e., z=ax+by+c) is fitted to the values of the reference clones. After the surface is calculated, the residuals to each reference clone are calculated. If any of these residuals is outside of a given cutoff range, the reference surface is recalculated with omission of the aberrant reference clone.

If a first order surface does not sufficiently represent the values of the reference clones, a restricted second order surface is used (i.e., z=a(x²+ky²)+bx+cy+d, where k is a constant).

Calculate the reference-normalized values: For the criteria parameter of each sample, a reference-normalized value is determined by calculating the ratio or inverse ratio with the respective reference value. The reference-normalized values are L_(i)/L_(ir), τ/τ_(r), K_(mr)/K_(m:app,total), and S_(r)/S, where reference values are calculated from the equations of the appropriate reference surface.

Calculate the composite scores: For each sample, calculate

C=5(τ/τ_(r))+2(S _(r) /S)+2(K _(mr) /K _(m:app,total))+(L _(i) /L _(ir)).

Determine subgroupings: For the criteria parameters L_(i), τ, K_(m:app,total), S, and C, delimiting values (i.e., bin sizes) for subgroupings are defined as gL, gτ, gKm, gS, and gC. Starting with the highest values for L_(i), τ, or C, or the lowest values of K_(m:app,total) or S, the samples are assigned to bins for each criteria parameter (the first bin being #1, and so on).

Display sorted table of reference-normalized values: Present a table of data for each sample showing in each row the following data:

sample identification number (e.g., 7:B06)

composite score (C)

reference-normalized enzyme stability (τ/τ_(r))

correlation coefficient for enzyme stability

bin number for enzyme stability

reference-normalized signal stability (S_(r)/S)

correlation coefficient for signal stability

bin number for signal stability

reference-normalized substrate binding (K_(mr)/K_(m:app,total))

correlation coefficient for substrate binding

bin number for substrate binding

reference-normalized expression/specific activity (L_(i)/L_(ir))

bin number for expression/specific activity

The table is sorted by the composite score (C).

Present Sorted Table of Criteria Parameters.

Present a table of data for each sample showing in each row the following data:

sample identification number

composite score (C)

enzyme stability (τ)

correlation coefficient for enzyme stability

bin number for enzyme stability

signal stability (S)

correlation coefficient for signal stability

bin number for signal stability

substrate binding (K_(m:app,total))

correlation coefficient for substrate binding

bin number for substrate binding

expression/specific activity (L_(i))

bin number for expression/specific activity

The table is sorted by the composite score (C); the reference clones are excluded from the table. Same entry coding by standard deviation as described above.

Present Sorted Table of Reference-Normalized Values

This is the same procedure as the final step of the data reduction procedure. The table will show:

sample identification number

composite score (C)

reference-normalized enzyme stability (τ/τ_(r))

correlation coefficient for enzyme stability

bin number for enzyme stability

reference-normalized signal stability (S_(r)/S)

correlation coefficient for signal stability

bin number for signal stability

reference-normalized substrate binding (K_(mr)/K_(m:app,total))

correlation coefficient for substrate binding

bin number for substrate binding

reference-normalized expression/specific activity (L_(i)/L_(ir))

bin number for expression/specific activity

The table is sorted by the composite score (C); the reference clones are excluded from the table. Same entry coding by standard deviation as described above.

Present Sorted Table of Criteria Parameters for Reference Clones

This is the same procedure as described above for criteria parameters, except for only the reference clones. The table will show:

sample identification number

composite score (C)

enzyme stability (τ)

correlation coefficient for enzyme stability

bin number for enzyme stability

signal stability (S)

correlation coefficient for signal stability

bin number for signal stability

substrate binding (K_(m:app,total))

correlation coefficient for substrate binding

bin number for substrate binding

expression/specific activity (L_(i))

bin number for expression/specific activity The table is sorted by the composite score (C). Same entry coding by standard deviation as described above.

Present Sorted Table of Reference-Normalized Values

This is the same procedure as described above for reference-normalized values, except for only the reference clones. The table will show:

sample identification number

composite score (C)

reference-normalized enzyme stability (τ/τ_(r))

correlation coefficient for enzyme stability

bin number for enzyme stability

reference-normalized signal stability (S_(r)/S)

correlation coefficient for signal stability

bin number for signal stability

reference-normalized substrate binding (K_(mr)/K_(m:app,total))

correlation coefficient for substrate binding

bin number for substrate binding

reference-normalized expression/specific activity (L_(i)/L_(ir))

bin number for expression/specific activity

The table is sorted by the composite score (C). Same entry coding by standard deviation as described above.

Sort table

Any table may be sorted by any entries as primary and secondary key.

Display Histogram of Table

For any table, a histogram of criteria parameter vs. bin number may be displayed for any criteria parameter.

Display Plate Map

For any plate, a plate map may be displayed showing a choice of:

any luminescence or optical density measurement

L_(i)

L_(i) reference surface

L_(i)/L_(ir)

τ

τ reference surface

τ/τ_(r)

correlation coefficient of τ

S

S reference surface

S_(r)/S

correlation coefficient of S

K_(m:app,total)

K_(m) reference surface

K_(mr)/K_(m:app,total)

correlation coefficient for K_(m:app,total)

composite score (C)

The plate maps are displayed as a three dimensional bar chart. Preferably, the bars representing the reference clones are indicated by color or some other means.

Display Drill-Down Summary of Each Entry

For L_(i), τ, K_(m:app,total), and S, any entry value in a table may be selected to display the luminescence and optical density reading underlying the value calculation, and a graphical representation of the curve fit where appropriate. Preferably the equations involved and the final result and correlation coefficient will also be displayed.

L_(i) or L_(i)/L_(r). Display the optical density and luminescence value from the chosen sample in Plate 0 and Plate 1.

τ or τ/τ_(r). Display the optical density and luminescence value from the chosen sample in Plate 0, Plate 1, Plate 5, and Plate 8. Display graph of In(L1X) vs. t, showing data points and best line.

S or S_(r)/S. Display the optical density and luminescence value from the chosen sample in Plate 0, Plate 1, Plate 3, Plate 4, and Plate 7. Display graph of In(L) vs. t, showing data points and best line.

K_(m:app,total) or K_(mr)/K_(m:app,total). Display the optical density and luminescence value from the chosen sample in Plate 0, Plate 1, Plate 2, Plate 5, and Plate 6. Display graph of 1/L vs. 1/[S], showing data points and best line.

EXAMPLE 3 Preparation of Novel Luciferases

The gene shown in FIG. 45 contains a single base pair mutation which encodes an amino acid substitution at position 249, T to M. This clone has a spectral maximum of 552 nm which is yellow shifted from the sequence of Luc. This mutant was selected as an original template because it produces about 5 times brighter luminosity in vivo which allowed for more efficient screening.

C-Terminus Mutagenesis

To eliminate the peroxisome targeting signal (SKL), the L was mutated to a STOP codon and the 3 codons immediately upstream were randomized according to the oligonucleotide mutagenesis procedure described herein. The mutagenic oligonucleotide designed to accomplish this also introduces a unique Spel site to allow mutant identification without sequencing. The mutants were screened in vivo and 13 colonies picked, 12 of which contained the Spel site.

N-Terminus Mutagenesis

To test if expression could be improved, the 3 codons immediately downstream from the initiation Met were randomized as described herein. The mutagenic oligo designed to accomplish this also introduces a unique Apal site to allow mutant identification without sequencing. Seven clones were selected, and six of the isolated plasmids were confirmed to be mutants.

Shuffling of C- and N-Terminus Mutants

The C- and N-terminus mutagenesis were performed side-by-side. To combine the N- and C-terminus mutations, selected clones from each mutagenesis experiment were combined with the use of recombination mutagenesis according to the recombination mutagenesis protocol described herein. The shuffled mutants were subcloned into amp^(S) pRAM backbone and screened in DH5 F′IQ (BRL; Hanahan, 1985). A total of 24 clones were picked, only 4 contained both the N- and C-terminus mutations. These 4 clones were used as templates for randomization of the cysteine positions in the gene.

Mutagenesis to Randomize Cysteine Positions/Random Mutagenesis and Recombination Mutagenesis in the Luc Gene

There are 7 cysteine positions in LucPpe2. It is known that these positions are susceptible to oxidation which could cause destabilization of the protein. Seven oligonucleotides were ordered to randomize the cysteine positions.

The oligonucleotides were organized into two groups based upon the conservation of cysteine in other luciferase genes from different families. Group 1 randomizes the conserved cysteine positions C-60, C-80, and C-162. Group 2 randomizes cysteines that are not strictly conserved at positions C-38, C-127, C-221, and C-257.

The four selected templates from the N- and C-terminus mutagenesis were sub-cloned into an ampicillin-sensitive backbone and single-stranded DNA was prepared for each of the templates. These templates were combined in equal amounts and oligonucleotide mutagenesis was completed as described herein. It was determined by plating an aliquot of the mutS transformation prior to overnight incubation that each of the 2 groups contained 2×10⁴ independent transformants. MutS-DNA was prepared for the 2 groups and was then transformed into JM109 cells for screening. Mutants from group 1 were screened in vivo and picks were made for a full robotic run. Five clones were selected that had improved characteristics. Mutants from group 2 were screened in vivo and picks were made for a full robotic run. The temperature incubator on the robot was set at 33° C. for this set of experiments. Ten clones were selected that had improved characteristics. The fifteen best picks from both groups of the cysteine mutagenesis experiments were shuffled together as described herein and 18 of the best clones were selected after robotic processing.

The “best” clone from the above experiment (Luc31-1 G8) was selected as a template for subsequent rounds of mutagenesis. (The high temperature robot incubator temperature was set to 42° C.) Another complete round of mutagenesis was completed.

The 18 best clones from the above mutagenesis were picked and clone (Luc39-5B10) was selected as the best clone and was used as a template for another round of mutagenesis. (The high temperature robot incubator temperature was set at 49° C.).

After this cycle, 6 of the best clones were selected for sequencing (the nucleotide sequence and inferred amino acid sequence of five of the clones is shown in FIGS. 22-26 and 27-31, respectively). Based upon the sequence data, nine positions were selected for randomization and seven oligos were designed to cover these positions. Based upon data generated from the robot, it was determined that the best clone from the group of six clones that were sequenced was clone (Luc49-7C6, FIGS. 22 and 27). The luciferase gene from this clone was sub-cloned into an ampicillin-sensitive pRAM backbone and single stranded DNA was prepared. The randomization of the selected positions was completed according to the oligonucleotide mutagenesis procedure listed herein.

The randomization oligonucleotides were divided into 4 groups, and transformants from these experiments were picked and two robotic runs were completed. Ten clones were selected from the two experiments. (The high temperature robot incubator temperature on robot was set at 56° C.).

The best 10 picks from the above two experiments, and the best 18 picks from the previous population of clones were shuffled together (recombination mutagenesis protocol).

The 18 best clones were selected and clone Luc58-0A5 was determined to be the best clone. This clone was then used as a template for another round of mutagenesis. The high temperature robot incubator temperature was set at 58° C. Clone Luc71-504 was selected as a new lead clone and another round of mutagenesis was completed. Incubator set at 60° C.

The best 18 picks were selected. The nucleotide sequence and inferred amino acid sequence of 4 clones from experiment 78 are shown in FIGS. 32-35 and 36-39, respectively, and the best clone from this group was determined to be clone Luc78-0B10. The thermostability of clones at various temperatures is presented in the Figures.

EXAMPLE 4 Mutagenesis Strategy from Clone Luc78-0B10 to Luc90-1B5

Twenty-three oligonucleotides were prepared to change 28 positions to consensus. All of the oligonucleotides were tested individually using oligonucleotide directed mutagenesis with single stranded DNA from clone luc78-0B10 as a template to determine which oligonucleotides gave an improvement in thermostability. Table 4 lists the mutagenic oligonucleotides.

TABLE 4 OLIGO SYNTHESIS Description NUMBER SEQ ID NO. A17 to T 6215 48 M25 to L 6216 49 S36 to P; remove Nsi I site 6217 50 A101 to V, S105 to N 6218 51 I125 to V 6219 52 K139 to Q 6220 53 V145 to I 6221 54 V194 to I 6222 55 V203 to L, S204 to P 6231 56 A216 to V 6232 57 A229 to Q 6233 58 M249 to T (reversion)  6234* 59 T266 to R, K270 to E 6235 60 E301 to D 6236 61 N333 to P, F334 to G 6237 62 R356 to K 6238 63 I363 to V 6246 64 A393 to P 6247 65 R417 to H 6248 66 G482 to V 6249 67 N492 to T 6250 68 F499 to Y, S501 to A 6251 69 L517 to V 6252 70 F537 to L 6253 71 *Note that oligonucleotide #6234 does not change a consensus position. This oligonucleotide causes a reversion of position 249 to the wild-type Ppe-2 codon. Although reversion of this position was shown to increase thermostability at 62° C., reversion of this position decreased light output.

Three oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis experiments with clone luc78-0B10 as a template were completed. The oligonucleotides for these experiments were divided in the following manner:

a. 6215, 6234, 6236, 6248 (found to give increased thermostability)

b. 6215, 6217,6218,6219,6220, 6221,6222,6231, 6233,6234,6236,6238, 6247,6248,6249, 6251, 6253 (found to be neutral or have increased thermostability).

c. All 23 oligonucleotides.

Selections from the three experiments listed above were screened with the robotic screening procedure (experiment 84, see Table 1) using luc78-0B10 as a control. Selections from experiment 84 were recombined using the recombination mutagenesis procedure and then screened with the robotic screening procedure (experiment 85).

Single stranded DNA was prepared from three clones, luc85-3E12, luc85-4F12, luc85-5A4. The nucleotide sequence and inferred amino acid sequence of luc85-4F12 are shown in FIGS. 40 and 41, respectively. These clones were used as templates for oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis to improve codon usage. Positions were selected based upon a codon usage table published in Nucleic Acids Research, vol. 18 (supplement) 1990, page 2402. The table below lists oligonucleotides that were used to improve codon usage in E. coli.

TABLE 5 Description Oligo Synthesis # SEQ ID NO. L7(tta-ctg), remove Apa I site 6258 72 L29(tta-ctg) 6259 73 T42(aca-acc) 6260 74 L51, L56(tta-ctg), L58(ttg-ctg) 6261 75 L71(tta-ctg) 6262 76 L85(ttg-ctg) 6263 77 L95(ttg-ctg), L97(ctt-ctg) 6273 78 L113, L117(tta-ctg) 6274 79 L151, L153(tta-ctg) 6275 80 L163(ctc-ctg) 6276 81 R187(cga-cgt) 6277 82 L237(tta-ctg) 6279 83 R260(cga-cgc) 6280 84 L285, L290(tta-ctg), L286(ctt-ctg) 6281 85 L308(tta-ctg) 6282 86 L318(tta-ctg) 6283 87 L341(tta-ctg), T342(aca-acc) 6284 88 L380(ttg-ctg) 6285 89 L439(tta-ctg) 6286 90 L456(ctc-ctg), L457(tta-ctg) 6293 91 T506(aca-acc), L510(cta-ctg) 6305 92 R530(aga-cgt) 6306 93

In the first experiment, the three templates listed above from experiment 85 were combined and used as a templates for oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis. All of the oligonucleotides were combined in one experiment and clones resulting from oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis were screened using the robotic screening procedure as experiment 88. There were a low percentage of luminescent colonies that resulted from this experiment, so another oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis experiment was completed in which the oligonucleotides were combined in the following groups:

a. 6258, 6273, 6280, 6286

b. 6259, 6274, 6281, 6293

c. 6260, 6275, 6282, 6294

d. 6261, 6276, 6283, 6305

e. 6262, 6277, 6284, 9306

f. 6263, 6279, 6285

It was discovered that samples from group b had a low number of luminescent colonies, and it was hypothesized that one of the oligonucleotides in group b was causing problems. Selections were made from all of the experiments with the exception of experiment b. Samples were then run through the robotic screening procedure (experiment 89). Selections from experiments 88 and 89 were shuffled together with the recombination mutagenesis protocol and were then screened with the robotic screening procedure (experiment 90).

Materials and Methods

A. Mutagenesis Protocol

The mutant luciferases disclosed herein were produced via random mutagenesis with subsequent in vivo screening of the mutated genes for a plurality of characteristics including light output and thermostability of the encoded luciferase gene product. The mutagenesis was achieved by generally following a three-step method:

1. Creating genetic diversity through random mutagenesis. Here, error-prone PCR of a starting sequence was used to create point mutations in the nucleotide sequence. Because error-prone PCR yields almost exclusively single point mutations in a DNA sequence, a theoretical maximum of 7 amino acid changes are possible per nucleotide mutation. In practice, however, approximately 6.1 amino acid changes per nucleotide is achievable. For the 550 amino acids in luciferase, approximately 3300 mutants are possible through point mutagenesis.

2. Consolidating single point mutations through recombination mutagenesis. The genetic diversity created by the initial mutagenesis is recombined into a smaller number of clones by sPCR This process not only reduces the number of mutant clones, but because the rate of mutagenesis is high, the probability of linkage to negative mutations is significant. Recombination mutagenesis unlinks positive mutations from negative mutations. The mutations are “re-linked” into new genes by recombination mutagenesis to yield the new permutations. Then, after re-screening the recombination mutants, the genetic permutations that have the “negative mutations” are eliminated by not being selected. Recombination mutagenesis also serves as a secondary screen of the initial mutants prepared by error-prone PCR.

3. Broadening genetic diversity through random mutagenesis of selected codons. Because random point mutagenesis can only achieve a limited number of amino acid substitutions, complete randomization of selected codons is achieved by oligonucleotides mutagenesis. The codons to be mutated are selected from the results of the preceding mutagenesis processes on the assumption that for any given beneficial substitution, other alternative amino acid substitutions at the same positions may produce even greater benefits. The positions to be mutated are identified by DNA sequencing of selected clones.

B. Initial Mutagenesis Experiments

Both the N-terminus and the C-terminus of the starting sequence were modified by oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis to optimize expression and remove the peroxisomal targeting sequence. At the N-terminus, nine bases downstream of the initiation codon were randomized. At the C-terminus, nine bases upstream of the termination codon were randomized. Mutants were analyzed using an in vivo screen, resulting in no significant change in expression.

Six clones from this screen were pooled, and used to mutate the codons for seven cysteines. These codons were randomized using oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, and the mutants were screened using the robotic screening procedure. From this screen, fifteen clones were selected for directed evolution.

C. Generating and Testing Clones

Several very powerful and widely known protocols are used to generate and test the clones of the present invention. Unless noted otherwise, these laboratory procedures are well known to one of skill in the art. Particularly noted as being well known to the skilled practitioner is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) devised by Mullis and various modifications to the standard PCR protocol (error-prone PCR, sPCR, and the like), DNA sequencing by any method (Sanger or Maxxam & Gilbert's methodology), amino acid sequencing by any method (e.g., the Edman degradation), and electrophoretic separation of polynucleotides and polypeptides/proteins.

D. Vector Design

A preferred vector (pRAM) (see FIG. 20) used for the mutagenesis procedure contains several unique features that allow for the mutagenesis strategy to work efficiently:

The pRAM vector contains a filamentous phage origin, f1, which is necessary for the production of single-stranded DNA.

Two Sfil sites flank the gene. These sites were designed by so that the gene to be subcloned can only be inserted in the proper orientation.

The vector contains a tac promoter.

Templates to be used for oligonucleotide mutagenesis contain a 4 base-pair deletion in the bla gene which makes the vector ampicillin-sensitive. The oligonucleotide mutagenesis procedure uses a mutant oligonucleotide as well as an ampicillin repair oligonucleotide that restores function to the bla gene. This allows for the selection of a high percentage of mutants. (If selection is not used, it is difficult to obtain a high percentage of mutants.)

E. Uses of Luciferases

The mutant luciferases of the present invention are suitable for use in any application for which previously known luciferases were used, including the following:

ATP Assays. The greater enzyme stability means that reagents designed for detection of ATP have a greater shelf-life and operational-life at higher temperatures (e.g., room temperature). Therefore, a method of detecting ATP using luciferases with increased thermostability is novel and useful.

Luminescent labels for nucleic acids, proteins, or other molecules. Analogous to advantages of the luciferases of the present invention for ATP assays, their greater shelf-life and operational-life is a benefit to the reliability and reproducibility of luminescent labels. This is particularly advantageous for labeling nucleic acids in hybridization procedures where hybridization temperatures can be relatively high (e.g., greater than 40° C.). Therefore, a method of labeling nucleic acids, proteins, or other molecules using luciferases of the present invention is novel and useful.

Genetic reporter. In the widespread application of luciferase as a genetic reporter, where detection of the reporter is used to infer the presence of another gene or process of interest, the increased thermostability of the luciferases provides less temperature dependence of its expression in living cells and in cell-free translations and transcription/translation systems. Therefore, a method using the luciferases of the present invention as genetic reporters is novel and useful.

Enzyme immobilization. Enzymes in close proximity to physical surfaces can be denatured by their interaction with that surface. The high density immobilization of luciferases onto a surface to provide strong localized luminescence is improved by using thermostable luciferases. Therefore, a method of immobilizing luciferases onto a solid surface using luciferases of the present invention is novel and useful.

Hybrid proteins. Hybrid proteins made by genetic fusion genes encoding luciferases and of other genes, or through a chemical coupling process, benefit by having a greater shelf-life and operational-life. Therefore, a method of producing hybrid proteins through genetic means or chemical coupling using the luciferases of the present invention is novel and useful.

High temperature reactions. The light intensity of a luciferase reaction increases with temperature until the luciferase begins to denature. Because the use of thermostable luciferases allows for use at greater reaction temperatures, the luciferases of the present invention are novel and useful for performing high temperature reactions.

Luminescent solutions. Luminescence has many general uses, including educational, demonstrational, and entertainment purposes. These applications benefit from having enzymes with greater shelf-life and operational-life. Therefore, a method of making luminescent solutions using the luciferases of the present invention is novel and useful.

F. Firefly Luciferase

The firefly luciferase gene chosen for directed evolution was LucPpe2 isolated from Photuris pennsylvanica. The luciferase was cloned from fireflies collected in Maryland by Wood et al. and later was independently cloned by Dr. Leach using fireflies collected in Oklahoma (Ye et al., 1997). A mutant of this luciferase (T249M) was made by Wood et al. and used in the present invention because it produced approximately 5-fold more light when expressed in colonies of E. coli.

Overview of Evolution Process: Directed evolution was achieved through a recursive process, each step consisting of multiple cycles of 1) creating mutational libraries of firefly luciferase followed by 2) screening the libraries to identify new mutant clones having a plurality of desired enzymological characteristics.

To begin the process, three mutational libraries were created using error-prone PCR (Fromant et al., 1995). Each library was screened first by visual evaluation of luminescence in colonies of E. coli (Wood and De Luca, 1987), and then by quantitative measurements of enzymological properties in E. coli cell lysates. Approximately 10,000 colonies were examined in the visual screen, from which 704 were selected for quantitative analysis. From each quantitative screen 18 clones were selected. The three sets of 18 clones each were pooled together, and a new mutational library was created using DNA shuffling to generate intragenetic recombinations (sPCR; Stemmer, 1994). The results were screened to yield another set of 18 clones. The entire process was completed by combining this set of 18 clones with 18 clones from the previous round of evolution, creating another mutational library by DNA shuffling, and screening as before.

Screening method: In the qualitative visual screen, colonies were selected only for their ability to sustain relatively bright luminescence. The thermal stability of the luciferase within the colonies of E. coli was progressively challenged in successive rounds of evolution by increasing the temperature of the screen. The selected colonies were inoculated into wells of 96-well plates each containing 200 μl of growth medium.

In the quantitative screens, lysates of the E. coli cultures were measured for 1) luminescence activity, 2) enzyme stability, 3) sustained enzymatic turnover, and 4) substrate binding.

“Luminescence activity” was measured as the ratio of luminescence intensity to the optical density of the cell culture.

“Enzyme stability” was determined by the rate of activity loss from cell lysates over 10 hours. In successive rounds of evolution the incubation temperature of the lysates was increased.

“Sustained enzymatic turnover” was determined by the rate of luminescence loss of a signal enzymatic reaction over 10 hours at room temperature.

“Substrate binding” was determined by the relative activity of the lysate when assayed with diluted substrate mixtures. Of these four parameters, the highest priority for selection was placed on thermostability.

Robotic Automation: Robotic automation was used in the quantitative screens to accurately perform the large number of required quantitative assays on the cultured cells. Overnight cultures were first diluted into fresh medium and grown for 3 hours to produce cultures in mid-log phase growth. The optical densities of each culture was then measured, and aliquots of the cultures were lysed by freeze/thaw and lysozyme. The resulting lysates were further diluted before analysis and incubated at elevated temperatures. Luminescence was measured from aliquots of the diluted lysates, taken at various times, and measured under various conditions as prescribed by the analytical method (see Example 2). Computer analysis of this data yielded the quantitative selection criteria described herein.

Summary of evolutionary progression: After mutagenesis of the N- and C-termini, and randomization of the cysteine codons, a pool of 15 clones was subjected to two rounds of directed evolution as described herein. Five of the 18 clones resulting from this process were sequenced to identify mutations. One of these clones designated, Luc49-7C6, was chosen for more detailed analysis and further mutagenesis. This clone contained 14 new amino acid substitutions compared to the luciferase Luc[T249M].

To assess the potential for other amino acid replacements at the sites of these substitutions, oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis was used to randomize these codons. The resulting clones were screened as described herein, and 18 selected clones were used to initiate two new rounds of directed evolution. Of the 18 clones resulting from this second set of rounds, the clone designated Luc78-0B10 was chosen for additional study and mutagenesis. This clone encoded a luciferase that contained 23 new amino acid substitutions compared to Luc[T249M].

Using oligonucleotide directed mutagenesis with Luc78-0B10 as the template, codons were selected for substitution to consensus amino acids previously known among beetle luciferases. Selections from this mutagenesis experiment were shuffled together and three clones, determined to be the most stable were then used as templates for oligonucleotide mutagenesis to improve codon usage in E. coli. A clone designated Luc90-1B5 selected from this experiment, contained 34 amino acid substitutions relative to Luc[T249M] (see FIGS. 42 and 43 for the nucleotide sequence and inferred amino acid sequence of luc90-1B5, and FIGS. 44 and 45 for the nucleotide sequence encoding and the inferred amino acid sequence of Luc[T249M]). Out of 25 codons selected for change to consensus amino acids, 11 were replaced in the clone designated Luc90-1B5. Only five out of the 30 positions that were selected for improved codon usage were substituted and had little effect on enzyme expression.

Protein purification: Four mutants that are described herein (Luc[T249M], Luc49-7C6, Luc78-0B10, and Luc90-1B5) were purified using a previously published procedure (Hastings et al., 1996).

Enzymological characterization: Purified proteins were diluted in 25 mmol/L HEPES pH 7.8, 150 mmol/L NaCl, 0.1 mmol/L EDTA, l mg/ml BSA. Enzyme stability was determined from diluted proteins incubated at different temperatures, and aliquots were removed at different time points. A linear regression of the natural log of the luminescence and time was calculated. Half-life was calculated as the 1n(0.5)/slope of the regression.

G. PCR Mutagenesis Protocol (Random Mutagenesis) PCR Mutagenesis Reactions

1. Prepare plasmid DNA from a vector containing the gene of interest, estimate DNA concentration from a gel.

2. Set up two 50 μl reactions per group:

There are three groups of mutagenic conditions using different skewed nucleotide concentrations.

The conditions listed herein yield in the range of from 8-10% wild-type Luc colonies after subcloning phenotypic for each generated parent clone. The rate of mutagenesis is estimated by the number of luminescent colonies that are present after mutagenesis. Based upon results of clones mutated in the range of 8-10%, it was determined that this level of mutagenesis produces on average approximately 2-3 amino acid changes per gene. If the mutagenesis rate is selected so that on average there is one amino acid change per gene, then on average 50% of the clones will have no mutations. (Bowie et al., 1990).

For the master mix: add all components (see Table 6) except polymerase, vortex, spin briefly, add polymerase, and mix gently.

TABLE 6 Component A to T/T to A A to C/T to G G to A/C to T dATP 0.3 mM 0.1 mM 0.25 mM dCTP 2.75 mM 4 mM 1 mM dGTP 0.06 mM 0.02 mM 0.05 mM dttP 0.625 mM 0.3 mM 0.6 mM ⁺⁺pRAMtailUP 0.4 pmol/μl 0.4 pmol/μl 0.4 pmol/μl ⁺⁺pRAMtailDN 0.4 pmol/μl 0.4 pmol/μl 0.4 pmol/μl *Taq Polymerase 1 U/μl 1 U/μl 1 U/μl □MgCl₂ 6.77 mM 5.12 mM 2.7 mM □MnCl₂ 0.5 mM 0.5 mM 0.3 mM DNA 50 ng total 50 ng total 50 ng total 10X PcR buffer 1X 1X 1X Autoclaved nanopure To 50 μl To 50 μl To 50 μl water *Taq Polymerase is purchased from Perkin Elmer (N808-0101). °MnCl₂ and MgCl₂ are made fresh from 1 M stocks. The stocks are filter sterilized and mixed with sterile water to make the 10 mM and 25 mM stocks which are then stored in Polystyrene Nalgene containers at 4° C. ⁺⁺pRAMtailUP: 5□-gtactgagacgacgccagcccaagcttaggcctgagtg-3□ (SEQ ID NO: 38); pRAMtailDN: 5□-ggcatgagcgtgaactgactgaactagcggccgccgag-3□ (SEQ ID NO: 39) 10X PCR Polymerase buffer:

100 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.4 from 1 M stock

500 mM Kcl

Primers are diluted from a 1 nmol/μl stock to a 20 pmol/μl working stock.

Cycle in thermal cycler: 94° C. for 1 minute (94° C. for 1 minute, 72° C. for 10 minutes) 10X

3. Purify reaction products with Wizard PCR purification kit (Promega Corporation, Madison, Wis., part#A718c):

-   -   transfer PCR reaction into a new tube containing Promega 100 μl         Direct Purification buffer (Promega part#A724a)     -   add 1 ml of Wizard PCR Purification Resin (Promega part#A718c)         Promega and incubate at room temperature for 1 minute     -   pull resin though Wizard minicolumn     -   wash with 80% ethanol     -   spin in microcentrifuge to remove excess ethanol         -   elute into 50 μl sterile nanopure water (allow water to             remain on column for at least 1 minute)

Amplification¹ of Mutagenesis Reaction

1. Set up five 50 μl reactions (see Table 7) per group.

TABLE 7 Components Concentration Amount in 50 μl Final concentration dATP 10 mM 1 μl 0.2 mM dCTP 10 mM 1 μl 0.2 mM dGTP 10 mM 1 μl 0.2 mM dTTP 10 mM 1 μl 0.2 mM +pRAM18UP 20 pmol/μl 1 μl 0.4 pmol/μl +pRAM19DN 20 pmol/μl 1 μl 0.4 pmol/μ1 Pfu polymerase 2 U/ul 1 μl 0.04 μ/μL □10X buffer 10X 5 μl 1X DNA 10 μl  Water 24.6 μl  

-   -   To master mix: add all components, except polymerase, vortex,         spin briefly, add polymerase, mix gently.     -   □10X reaction buffer for Native Pfu polymerase contains 20 mM         MgCl₂, so no additional MgCl₂ needs to be added+primers:

(SEQ ID NO: 40) pRAM18UP-5□-gtactgagacgacgccag-3□ (SEQ ID NO: 41) pRAM19DN-5□-ggcatgagcgtgaactgac-3□

-   -   -   Cycling conditions: 94° C. for 30 seconds (94° C. for 20             seconds, 65° C. for 1 minute, 72° C. for 3 minutes) 25×         -   (Perkin-Elmer Gene Amp® PCR System 2400)

2. Load 1 μl on a gel to check amplification products

3. Purify amplification reaction products with Wizard PCR purification kit (Promega Corporation, part#A718c):

-   -   transfer PCR reaction into a new tube containing 100 μl Direct         Purification buffer (Promega, Part#A724a)     -   add 1 ml of Wizard PCR Purification Resin (Promega Part#A718c)         and incubate at room temperature for 1 min ¹ This amplification         step with Pfu polymerase was incorporated for 2 reasons: (a) To         increase DNA yields for the production of large numbers of         transformants. (b) To reduce the amount of template DNA that is         carried over from the mutagenic PCR reaction: (Primers for the         second amplification reaction are nested within the mutagenic         primers. The mutagenic primers were designed with non-specific         tails of 11 and 12 bases respectively for the upstream and         downstream primers. The nested primers will amplify DNA that was         previously amplified with the mutagenic primers, but cannot         amplify pRAM template DNA.)     -   pull resin though Wizard minicolumn     -   wash with 80% Ethanol     -   spin in microcentrifuge to remove excess Ethanol     -   elute with 88 μl sterile nanopure water (allow water to remain         on column for at least 1 min)

Subcloning of Amplified PCR Mutagenesis Products

1. Digest the DNA with Sfi I as follows:

-   -   2 μl Sfi I (Promega Part #R639a)     -   10 μl 10X buffer B (Promega Part #R002a)     -   88 μl of DNA from Wizard PCR prep (see step 3 above)         -   mix components and overlay with 2 drops of mineral oil;             incubate at 50° C. for 1 hour

2. Remove salts and Sfi I ends with Wizard PCR purification as described herein, and elute into 50 μl sterile nanopure water

3. Ligation into pRAM (+/r) backbone (set up 4 ligations per group): −0.025 pmol pRAM backbone

-   -   0.05 pmol insert (usually in the range of 6 to 12 μl of insert)     -   1 μl of T4 DNA Ligase (Promega part M180a)     -   2 μl of 10X ligase buffer (Promega part C126b, divide into 25 μl         aliquots, do not freeze/thaw more than twice)     -   water to 20 μl     -   ligate for 2 hours at room temperature     -   heat reactions for 15 minutes at 70□C to inactivate ligase

Transformation and Plating

1. Butanol precipitate samples to remove excess salts (n-Butanol from Sigma, St. Louis, Mo., part #BT-105):

(if ethanol precipitation is used instead of butanol, a wash with 70% ethanol as needed. Excess salt will cause arcing during the electroporation which causes the reaction to fail.)

-   -   add water to 50 μl     -   add 500 μl of n-butanol     -   mix until butanol/ligation mix is clear and then spin for 20 min         at room temperature     -   drain butanol into waste container in fume hood     -   resuspend in 12 μl water, spin 30 sec at full speed

2. Preparation of cell/DNA mix (set up 4 transformations plus one with reference clone DNA):

-   -   while DNA is precipitating, place electroporation cuvettes on         ice     -   fill 15 ml Falcon snap-cap tubes with 3 ml S.O.C. medium and         place on ice     -   thaw JM109 electrocompetent cells on ice (50 μl per ligation         reaction)     -   pipette 10 μl of the bottom layer from step 1 (or 0.5 μl         ref.clone DNA) into competent cells         (small amounts of butanol carry-over do not adversely effect the         transformation efficiency)     -   place cell/DNA mix on ice

3. Electroporation:

-   -   carry tubes, cuvettes, and cell/DNA mix on ice to         electroporation device     -   pipette cell-DNA mix into a cuvette and zap. Instrument         settings:     -   Cuvette gap: 0.2 cm     -   Voltage: 2.5 kV     -   Capacitance: 25μF     -   Resistance: 200 Ohms     -   Time constant: 4.5 msec     -   pipette 1 ml SOC (contains KCl; media prep #KCLM) into cuvette,         quickly pour into recovery tube (transformation efficiency is         reduced if cells are allowed to sit in cuvette)     -   place the recovery tube on ice until all samples are processed     -   allow the cells to recover at 37° C. for 30-60 minutes     -   plate on LB+amp plates with nitrocellulose filters     -   (# of colonies is about 20% higher if cells recover 60 minutes,         possibly due to cell replication.)     -   (Best colony density for screening is 500 per plate. For the         current batch of cells plate about 500 to 750 μl)

H. Recombination Mutagenesis Protocol or DNA Shuffling

DNase I digestion of plasmid DNA

1. Prepare 2% low melting point gel

-   -   use 0.8 g agarose in 40 ml (NuSieve #50082)     -   use large prep comb     -   make sure it is solidified prior to digesting

2. Prepare 4 μg of pooled plasmid DNA for digest

3. Prepare 1 U/μl DNase dilution on ice according to the table below:

TABLE 8 DNase I⁺ 0.74 μl   10X DnaseI buffer 10 μl 1% gelatin* 10 μl Water to 100 μl ⁺DNase I from Sigma (D5791) *Gelatin was added to keep the DNase I from sticking to the walls of the tubes. This dilution can be kept on ice for at least 30 min without loss in activity.

4. Digest (set up at room temperature):

-   -   prepare two digests with 1.0 U and 1.5 U DNase I per 100 μl         reaction:     -   10 μl of 10X DNase I buffer (500 mM Tris, 10 mM MgCl₂ pH 7.8)     -   x μl DNA (2 μg of pooled plasmid DNA from step 2)     -   1 or 1.5 μl of the 1 U/μl enzyme dilution     -   sterile nanopure water to 100 μl     -   incubate at room temperature for 10 minutes     -   stop reaction by addition of 1 μl of 100 mM CDTA         Purification from Agarose Gel

1. Run DNase digested fragments on gel

-   -   add 10 μl of 10X loading buffer to each DNase I digest     -   load all on a 2% Low melting point agarose gel     -   run about 30 min at 120-150 V     -   load pGEM DNA marker in middle lane

2. Isolate fragments

-   -   cut out agarose slice containing fragments in the size range of         600-1000 bp using a razor blade     -   cut into pieces that weigh about 0.3 g     -   melt the gel slices at 70° C.     -   add 300 μl of Phenol (NaCl/Tris equilibrated) to the melted         agarose, vortex for about 1 minute at max speed     -   spin for 10 min at 4° C.     -   remove the top layer into a tube containing an equal volume of         Phenol/Chloroform/Isoamyl (saturated with 300 mM NaCl/100 mM         Tris pH 8.0), vortex and centrifuge for 5 minutes at RT     -   remove the top layer into a tube containing chloroform and         vortex and centrifuge.     -   remove the top layer into a tube with 2 vol. of 95% cold         Ethanol; place in −70° C. freezer for 10 min (no additional         salts are needed because of the High Salt Phenol)     -   spin at 4° C. for 15 minutes.     -   wash with 70% Ethanol, drain and air dry for ˜10 min     -   resuspend in 25 to 50 μl of sterile nanopure water     -   store at −70° C. until ready for use

Assembly Reaction

Set up 4 reactions (see Table 9) and pool when completed.

TABLE 9 Component Concentration Amount in μl Final concentration dATP 10 mM 1 200 μM dCTP 10 mM 1 200 μM dGTP 10 mM 1 200 μM dTTP 10 mM 1 200 μM DNA* 1-10 ng 5 Tli 3 U/μl 0.4 0.24 U/μ1 10X Thermo buffer 10X 5 1X MgCl₂ 25 mM 4 2 mM gelatin 1% 5 0.1% water To 50 μ1 *Because the DNA used for this reaction has been fragmented, it is difficult to estimate a concentration. The easiest way is to load 5 μl of the DNaseI digested DNA to an agarose gel and run the gel until the dye enters the wells (1-2 min). Fragments from a typical 2 μg DNA digest which were resuspended in 100 μl of water give a DNA concentration of about 1 to 10 ng/μl.

Cycling conditions: 94° C. for 30 seconds (94° C. for 20 seconds, 65° C. for 1 minute, 72° C. for 2 minutes) 25×

Amplification of Assembly

Usually 5 amplification reactions (see Table 10) will produce enough DNA for a full 8 plate robotic run.

TABLE 10 Final Component Concentration Amount in μl concentration dATP 10 mM 1 200 μM dCTP 10 mM 1 200 μM dGTP 10 mM 1 200 μM dTTP 10 mM 1 200 μM pRAMtailUP* 20 pmol/μl 2 0.8 pmol/μl pRAMtailDN* 20 pmol/μl 2 0.8 pmol/μl Pfu native 2 U/μl 1 0.04 U/μl polymerase⁺ 10X native Pfu 1X 5 1X buffer□ DNA 1-10 ng 5 water water to 50 μl *Note that the concentration of primers is twice as high as in a typical amplification reaction. □ The Pfu 10X buffer contains 20 mM MgCl₂, so it is not necessary to add MgCl₂. ⁺Pfu polymerase is ordered from Stratagene part #600135. Cycling conditions: 94° C. for 30 seconds (94° C. for 20 seconds, 65° C. for 1 minute, 72° C. for 3 minutes) 25x

Subcloning of Assembly Amplification

Purify amplification products with Wizard PCR purification:

-   -   pool 5 amplification reactions     -   transfer into a new tube that contains 100 μl of Direct         Purification buffer     -   add 1 ml of Wizard PCR Purification Resin, incubate at RT for 1         minute     -   pull Resin though Wizard minicolumn     -   wash with 80% ethanol and spin in microcentrifuge to remove         excess ethanol     -   elute with 88 μl of sterile nanopure water (allow water to         remain on column for at least 1 minute)

2. Digest with Sfi I:

-   -   2 μl Sfi I     -   10 μl 10X buffer B     -   88 μl of DNA from Wizard PCR prep     -   mix components and overlay with 2 drops of mineral oil; incubate         at 50° C. for 1 hour

3. Band isolation:

Sometimes after amplification of the assembly reaction a band that is smaller than the gene-sized fragment is produced. This small fragment has been shown to subclone about 10-fold more frequently than the gene sized fragment if the sample is not band isolated. When this contaminating band is present, it is necessary to band isolate after Sfi I digestion.

-   -   load the DNA to a 0.7% agarose gel     -   band isolate and purify with the Gene Clean kit from Bio 101     -   elute DNA with 50 μl sterile nanopure water, check concentration         on gel (This type of purification with standard agarose produced         the highest number of transformants after subcloning. Other         methods tried: Low melt with Phenol chloroform, Gene clean with         low melt, Wizard PCR resin with standard agarose, Pierce Xtreme         spin column with Low melt (did not work with standard agarose)).

4. Ligate into pRAM [+/r] backbone: (See ligation and transformation protocol above)

Large Scale Preparation of DRAM Backbone

1. Streak an LB amp plate with pRAMMCS [+/r] (This vector contains a synthetic insert with a Sac II site in place of a gene. This vector contains the new ribosome binding site, but it will be cut out when the vector is digested with Sfi 1.

2. Prepare a 10 ml overnight culture in LB supplemented with amp.

3. The next day inoculate 1 L of LB supplemented with amp and grow for 16-20 hours.

4. Purify the DNA with the Wizard Maxi Prep kit. (Promega #A7270) (use 4 preps for 1 L of cells)

5. Digest the Plasmid with Sfi I. (Use 5 U per microgram) Overlay with mineral oil and digest for at least two hours.

6. Ethanol precipitate to remove salts. Resuspend in water.

7. Digest with Sac II for 2 hours. (Keep digest volume to 2 ml or less). It is possible that part of the plasmid could be partially digested. If the vector is cut with an enzyme that is internal to the two Sfi I sites, it will keep the partially digested fragments from joining in a ligation reaction.

8. Load entire digest onto a column (see 9). The volume of the sample load should not be more than 2 ml. If it is it will be necessary to ethanol precipitate.

9. The column contains Sephacryl S-1000 and is stored with 20% ethanol to prevent bacterial contamination. Prior to loading the sample the column must be equilibrated with cold running buffer for at least 24 hours. If the column has been sitting more than a couple of months it may be necessary to empty the column, equilibrate the resin 3-4 washes in cold running buffer, and then re-pour the column. After the column is poured it should be equilibrated overnight so that the resin is completely packed.

10. Collect fractions of about 0.5 ml. Typically the DNA comes off between fractions 25 and 50. Load a 5 μl aliquot from a range of fractions to determine which fractions contain the backbone fragment. The small insert fragment will start to come off the column before all of the backbone is eluted, so it will be necessary to be conservative when fractions are pooled. For this reason typically 40-60% of the DNA is lost at this step.

11. Pool the fractions that contain the backbone.

12. Ethanol precipitate the samples. Resuspend in a volume that produces about 10-50 ng/μl.

13. Store at -70° C.

Column running buffer: (store at 4° C.)

5 mM EDTA

100 mM NaCl

50 mM Tris-HCL pH 8.0

10 μg/ml tRNA (R-8759, Sigma)

I. Oligonucleotide Mutagenesis

Prepare Ampicillin-sensitive single stranded DNA of the template to be mutated. Design a mutagenic primer that will randomly generate all possible amino acid codons.

Mutagenesis Reaction:

TABLE 11 Component Final concentration Single Stranded Template 0.05 pmol Mutagenic Oligonucleotide 1.25 pmol Ampicillin Repair Oligo (Promega q631a) 0.25 pmol 10X annealing buffer* 1X Water to 20 μl *10X Annealing buffer: 200 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5 100 mM MgCl2 500 mM NaCl

Heat reaction at 60° C. for 15 minutes and then immediately place on ice.

Synthesis Reaction:

TABLE 12 Component Amount Water 5 μl 10X synthesis buffer* 3 μl T4 DNA Polymerase (Promega m421a) 1 μl (10 Units) T4 DNA Ligase (Promega 180a) 1 μl (3 Units) *10X Synthesis buffer 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5 5 mM dNTPs 10 mM ATP 20 mM DTT Incubate at 37° C. for 90 minutes. Transform into Mut-S strain BMH 71-18 (Promega strain Q6321) Place Synthesis reaction in a 17 × 100 mm tube. Add BMH 71-18 competent cells that have been thawed on ice to synthesis reaction. Incubate on ice for 30 min Heat Shock cells at 42° C. for 90 seconds. Add 4 ml of LB medium and grow cells at 37° C. for 1 hour. Add Ampicillin to a final concentration of 1.25 ug/ml and then grow overnight at 37° C. Isolate DNA with Wizard Plus Purification system (Promega a7100) Transform isolated DNA into JM109 electrocompetent cells and transform onto LB Ampicillin plates.

J. Screening Procedure

JM109 clones (from a transformation reaction) are plated onto nitrocellulose filters placed on LB amp plates at a screening density of about 500 colonies per plate.

As listed in the Random Mutagenesis procedure, approximately 10% of the clones to be selected will have to be as stable as the same sequenced or better than source. Or stated another way, about 50 colonies per plate will be suitable for selection. There are 704 wells available for a full eight plate robotic run, so at least 15 LB amp plates will be needed for a full robotic run.

After overnight growth at 37° C. the plates containing the transformants are removed from the incubator and placed at room temperature.

The nitrocellulose filter is lifted on one side and 500 μl of 10 mM IPTG is added to each of the plates. The filter is then placed back onto the plate to allow diffusion of the IPTG into the colonies containing the different mutant luciferase genes. The plates are then incubated for about 4 hours at room temperature.

One (1) ml of a solution contains 1 mM luciferin and 100 mM sodium citrate is pipetted onto a slide warmer that is set at 50° C. A nitrocellulose filter that contains mutant luciferase colonies and has been treated with IPTG is then placed on top of the luciferin solution. After several minutes, the brightest colonies are picked with tooth picks which are used to inoculate wells in a microtiter plate that contain M9-minimal media with 1% gelatin.

After enough colonies are picked to 8 microtiter plates, the plates are placed in an incubator at 350 rpm at 30° C. incubation and are grown overnight.

In the morning the overnight plates are loaded onto the robot and the cell dilution procedure is run. (This procedure dilutes the cultures 1:10 into induction medium). The new plates are grown for 3 hours at 350 rpm at 30° C.

After growth, the plates are loaded to the robot for the main assay procedure.

Minimal Media:

6 g/Liter Na₂HPO₄

3 g/Liter KH₂PO₄

0.5 g/Liter NaCl

1 g/Liter NH₄Cl

2 mM MgSO₄

0.1 mM

1 mM Thiamine-HCl

0.2% glucose

12 μg/ml tetracycline

100 μg/ml ampicillin

Overnight media contains 1% gelatin

Induction media contains 1 mM IPTG and no gelatin.

S.O.C. Media:

−10 mM NaCl

−2.5 mM KC1

−20 mM MgC1₂

−20 mM glucose

−2% bactotryptone

−0.5% yeast extract

Summary of Exemplary Evolutionary Progression

1. Start with LucPpe2[T249M]

2. Mutate 3 amino acids at N- and C-termini

3. Mutate 7 cysteines

4. Perform two iterations of evolution □ Luc49-7C6

5. Mutagenesis of altered codons (9)

6. Two iterations of evolution □ Luc78-0B10

7. Mutagenesis of consensus codons (28)

8. Mutagenesis of codon usage (24) □ Luc90-1B5

One Iteration of Recursive Process

1. 1 clone □ 3 libraries using error-prone PCR

-   -   □ 3× Visual screen (about 10,000 clones each)     -   □ 3× Quantitative screen (704) clones each)

2. 3×18 clones □ library using sPCR

-   -   □ Visual screen (about 10,000 clones)     -   □ Quantitative screen (704 clones)

3. 18+18 □ library using sPCR

-   -   □ Visual screen (about 10,000 clones)     -   □ Quantitative screen (704 clones)

4. Output: 18 clones

EXAMPLE 5 Mutagenesis Strategy from Clone Luc90-1B5 to Luc133-1B2 and Luc146-1H2

Upon storage, luciferin degrades and the degradation products inhibit luciferase. The production of inhibitors causes an apparent instability in the reagent containing both luciferase and luciferin. There are two ways to reduce this problem: 1) Store the luciferin and luciferase at pH 5.5-6.0 to reduce the rate of luciferin degradation, and/or 2) Evolve an enzyme that is resistant to the luciferin degradation products.

LucPpe2 mutants that were evolved after clone Luc90-1B5 were evolved to be more stable at low pH and have resistance to luciferin degradation products. These mutant enzymes are useful, for example, in an ATP detection kit. One embodiment of such a kit comprises a mixture of luciferin and luciferase. A luminescent reaction occurs when a sample comprising ATP is added to the mixture.

Three populations of random mutants were produced using clone Luc90-1B5 as a template. These three populations were screened on the robot as experiments 114, 115, and 117. Robotic screens for experiments 114, 115, 116, 117, 118,1 19, and 122 were completed as described previously except that buffer C was prepared with citrate buffer pH 4.5 instead of HEPES buffer pH 7.8, and the assay reagent was prepared with HEPES pH 7.1 with 10 μM ATP instead of Tricine pH 8.0 and 175 μM ATP. These screening conditions were biased to select clones that have increased retention of luminescence activity over time at pH 4.5 at 48° C. and increased luminescence activity when assayed at pH 7.1 with 10 μM ATP. Seventeen clones from experiment 114, seven clones from experiment 115, and ten clones from experiment 116 were shuffled together using sPCR and selected mutants from this screen were run on the robot as experiment 117. Eighteen clones were selected from experiment 117.

The clone that was determined to have the most improved characteristics (increased retention of luminescence activity over time at pH 4.5 and 48° C. and increased luminescence activity when assayed at pH 7.1 with 10 μM ATP) was clone Luc117-3C1 and it was selected as a template for random mutagenesis. Two populations of random mutants were screened and then run on the robot as experiments 118 and 119. Seven clones from experiment 118 and five clones from experiment 119 were saved.

Clones from experiments 114,115, 116, 117, 118, and 119 were selected based upon the following characteristics: brighter luminescence than Luc90-1B5, and increased retention of luminescence activity over time at pH 4.5. These select clones were shuffled together and were run on the robot as experiment 122. Eleven clones from this experiment were saved.

Three populations of random mutants were prepared from clone Luc122-4D5 and run on the robot as experiments 125, 126, and 127. Thirteen clones from experiment 125, four clones form experiment 126, and three clones from experiment 127 were shuffled together and run on the robot as experiment 128. For experiments 125, 126, 127 and 128 the screen for K_(m) was altered to select for clones that are more resistant to luciferin degradation products. The clones were also screened for retention of luminescence over time at pH 4.5.

Instead of screening for substrate utilization, a screen for resistance to inhibitor was conducted. In place of the 0.06X dilution of substrates, a 75:25 mix of D to L luciferin in 1X assay buffer was used and designated as “0.75X”. In place of the 0.02X dilution of substrates, a 50:50 mix of D to L luciferin in 1X assay buffer and was designated as “0.5X”. The 1X assay buffer in these experiments contained the following: 10 μM ATP, 50 mM HEPES pH 7.8, 8 mM MgSO₄, and 0.1 mM EDTA. The 0.75X sample contained 75 μM D-luciferin and 25 μM L-luciferin. The 0.5X sample contained 50 μM D-luciferin and 50 μM L-luciferin. The 1X sample contained 250μM D-luciferin. A K_(m) regression was used as before and a K_(m) value was calculated. Normalized values of greater than 1 indicate more resistance to inhibitor. Clones from these experiments that were shown to have greater resistance to L-luciferin were also more resistant to luciferin degradation products.

To more easily measure resistance to inhibitor on the robotic system, a new variable “Q” was designated. The “Q” variable replaces the K_(m) variable used previously. The luminescence ratio is calculated the same as in the K_(m) measurement, then the natural log (In) of each luminescence ratio is calculated (Y-axis). The X-axis is an arbitrary time that is entered by the user. The first time point is zero and the samples are measured with 1X assay buffer that contains 250 μM D-luciferin. The next two time points have the same time value (i.e., 4 hours to simulate incubation of luciferin) and samples are measured with 1X assay buffer that contains a 50:50 mixture (as described above) of D-luciferin to L-luciferin. A linear regression correlating In(lum ratio) to time is calculated. Q is calculated as the In(0.5)/slope. Normalized values of “Q” greater than 1 indicate more resistance to inhibitor. Experiments 133 and higher were run using this program.

Sixteen clones from experiment 128 were shuffled with clones from experiment 122 and run on the robot as experiment 133. Two samples, Luc133-1B2 and Luc133-0D11, were selected as templates for random mutagenesis and run on the robot as experiments 145 and 146, respectively. The clone that showed an increased retention of luminescence over time at pH 4.5 and the most resistance to inhibitor was clone Luc146-1H2. Moreover, at pH 4.5 and 48° C., Luc133-1B2 and Luc146-1H2 had increased thermostability relative to Luc90-1B5, and increased resistance to inhibitor (FIGS. 54-61). A comparison of the luminescence signal for Luc49-7C6, Luc78-0B10, Luc90-1B5, Luc133-1B2, and Luc146-1H2 is shown in FIG. 59. A comparison of the thermostability at 50° C. for clones for Luc49-7C6, Luc78-0B10, Luc90-1B5, Luc133-1B2, and Luc146-1H2 is shown in FIG. 60. FIGS. 55-58 show the nucleotide sequence encoding and the inferred amino acid sequence of Luc133-1B2 and Luc146-1H2.

Materials and Methods Assay to Detect Resistance to Luciferase Inhibitor

A 10 mM stock solution of luciferin is incubated at 50° C. in 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.8, to accelerate the production of luciferin breakdown products. At different time points an aliquot is removed and then placed at −20° C. After incubation is complete, assay reagent (100 μM Luciferin, 1 μM ATP, 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.8 and 8 mM MgSO₄) is prepared with luciferin from each of the different time points and a diluted lysate is then assayed with each assay reagent.

The lysate is prepared as follows. Overnight cultures of clones to be tested are prepared in LB supplemented with 100 μg/ml AMP. The cultures are diluted 1:10 in M-9 minimal media supplemented with 1 mM IPTG, 100 μg/ml AMP and grown for 3 hours at 30° C. Forty-five μl of cells is mixed with 20 μl of Buffer A and frozen. The mixture is thawed, 175 μl of Buffer B added, and the resulting mixture diluted 1:10 in Buffer C. A regression of luminescence versus time of luciferin incubation is then calculated, and from this graph half-life is extrapolated. A longer half-life means that the mutant being tested is more resistant to luciferin breakdown products.

EXAMPLE 6 Mutagenesis Strategy from LucPplYG to Clone Luc81-6G01

The luciferases from the luminous beetle, Pyrophorus plagiophthalamus, had been shown previously to generate different colors of luminescence (LucPpl). Analysis of these luciferases revealed that the different colors were caused by discreet amino acid substitutions to their protein sequences. This allowed the possibility to make a pair of genetic reporters capable of emitting a multiplexed luminescent signal, thus enabling quantitation of two biomolecular events simultaneously from within the same living system.

Amino acid substituted LucPpl were prepared which have the following properties:

Physical Stability of the Luciferases

Although the luminescence activity of LucPpl within colonies of E. coli appeared to be thermostable to above 60° C., in lysates these luciferases had relatively low stability. They were particularly unstable in the presence of Triton X-100 detergent. When lysates are prepared containing the commonly used firefly luciferase, the enzyme retains greater than 90% activity over 5 hours at room temperature. In contrast, the activity of the LucPpl luciferases would decrease several fold over the same period.

The thermostabilities of the LucPpl luciferases are also near the physiological temperature of mammalian cells. The green-emitting luciferase (LucPplGR) and red-emitting luciferase (LucPplRD) have different thermostabilities which may cause differences in the behaviors as genetic reporters within cells. The influence of temperature should be greatest near the point of denaturation for the enzymes, where small changes in temperature will have the greatest effect on protein structure. In contrast, temperature will have much less affect on protein structure when it is much below the denaturation point. Thus, the differential effect on two enzymes having slightly different denaturation temperatures will be less at relatively lower temperatures. It might therefore be preferable to have the denaturation temperature of the reporter enzyme significantly above the growth temperature of mammalian cells.

Spectral Overlap Between the Luciferases

Although a method was developed to quantify each luciferase in a mixture by using colored filters, the ability to discriminate between the luciferases is limited by their spectral overlap. This overlap reduces the ability to accurately measure both luciferases if their luminescence intensities differ by more than 10 fold. If the intensities differ by more than 50 fold, the luminescence signal of the dimmer luciferase is obscured by the other. Thus, it would be preferable to further separate the luminescence spectra of the two luciferases.

Many different mutations were identified which shifted the luminescence spectrum towards the red. But the limit for red luminescence appears to be about 620 nm. Further effort at shifting the spectrum of the red-emitting luciferase into still longer wavelengths might have some benefit. It was found that green-shifting mutations were rare, however, an extensive analysis was not conducted. Measurements from native luciferases show some examples of luminescence below 530 nm, about 15 nm less than the green-emitting prototype enzyme.

Differential Physical and Enzymological Characteristics

Ideally the two luciferase reporters would be identical in all characteristics except for the color of luminescence. However, as noted above, the physical stability of the luciferases was not identical. It was also found that mutations resulting in red-shifted luminescence also caused an increase in the K_(M) for luciferin. Although some of these differences may be unavoidable, it is not clear whether the properties are fundamentally associated. For instance, luciferases from different beetle species sometimes have significantly differing K_(M) even though their luminescence spectra are similar. It may be that much of the differences associated with development of the red-emitting luciferase are due to concomitant perturbations to the integrity of the enzyme structure, as the thermostability of a prototype of the red-emitting luciferase was increased without significantly altering the luminescence spectrum.

Stable Luminescence Signals

When firefly luciferase was first described as a genetic reporter, the luminescent signal was a relatively brief flash initiated upon injection of the reaction substrates. Subsequent development of the luminescent chemistry made the assay more convenient by enabling a stable signal for several minutes. Presently, such stabilized assays are standard for general laboratory applications. However, to allow high throughput screening in pharmaceutical research, the luminescence signal was further stabilized to extend for over an hour. This was necessary to allow sufficient time to assay several thousand samples in a batch. Although the luminescent signal of the new multiplexed luciferases was stable for minutes, they did not provide the extended signal stability needed for high throughput screening. It would be preferable if the signal stability could be further increased while optimizing other properties.

Methods to Optimize Luciferase Performance

To prepare luciferases having certain performance, a method for in vitro evolution of enzyme function, as described above, was employed. Briefly described, the method is a recursive process of generating random mutations and screening for desirable properties. It was originally developed primarily to increase the thermostability of luciferases, although other enzymological characteristics are also subject to optimization by the screening criteria. A slightly different strategy was used to achieve the properties described above since two related luciferases needed to be optimized concomitantly.

Initially, a single prototype enzyme is subjected to in vitro evolution to optimize physical stability and the luminescence signal. In the process, the mutant libraries are also screened for any new mutations causing changes in color. Particular emphasis is placed on isolating green shifted mutants. After initial optimization of a common prototype, a green- and red-emitting form of the enzymes is created, and these are further optimized separately to harmonize their physical and chemical properties. Particular attention is given to matching their physical stabilities and their substrate binding constants, especially for luciferin.

The choice for the initial prototype for optimization was the wild-type yellow-green-emitting luciferase isolated from the luminous beetles (LucPplYG). Of the luciferases originally cloned from P. plagiophthalamus, this one produced the brightest luminescence when expressed in E. coli. Furthermore, there was concern that the lack of green-shifting mutation resulted because the prior mutagenesis studies were done using a luciferase that already had the greenest luminescence. It was possible that if additional green-shifting mutations existed, they might be more evident when screened in a red-shifted background. The mutagenesis was performed as follows:

Remove Peroxisomal Targeting Sequence

The translocation signal at the C-terminus of the luciferases was removed. This was done using oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis to convert the normal -KSKL to -XXX* (where X represents any amino acid, and * represents a termination codon). Several colonies yielding bright luminescence were selected and used as templates for the next stage of mutagenesis.

Removal of Sensitive Cysteines

The luciferases from P. plagiophthalamus have 13 cysteines, which are potentially sensitive to oxidation. This is in contrast to the commonly used firefly luciferase, which has only 4 cysteines. To remove any cysteines that may limit enzyme stability, oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis was used to randomize the cysteine codons. Three sets of oligonucleotides were used: non-conserved cysteines in regions of low sequence homology (positions 69, 114, 160, 194, 335, and 460), non-conserved cysteines in regions of higher sequence homology (positions 127, 213, 310, and 311), and highly conserved cysteines (positions 60, 80, and 388). The best clones from each of these screens were isolated, and a new mutant library made by sPCR and screened again. At the screening temperature of 29° C., the activity of the wild-type yellow-green-emitting luciferase decreased about 500-fold over 10 hours. The activity of the most stable mutant (Luc20-4C10) was more stable, decreasing only about 2 fold.

First Cycle of Random Mutagenesis

Using the procedure developed previously, three mutant libraries were generated using error-prone PCR and screened. The best mutants from these were recombined into a new library by sPCR and screened again. Finally, the best clones of this screen were recombined with the best clones from the previous oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis by sPCR, and screened again. At 41° C., the activity of the best mutant from this process (Luc30-4B02) decreased 63 fold over 10 hours, whereas the activity of the parent mutant (Luc20-4C10) decreased greater than 100,000 fold.

Sequence Analysis

Six of the best mutants from the last screen were isolated and sequenced. This revealed that the amino acids at 16 positions had been changed among the six clones. Thirteen positions had been changed in the preferred mutant, Luc30-4B02. Four of the changes were at the C-terminus in all the isolated mutants, where oligonucleotide mutagenesis had changed the wild-type sequence of -KSKL to -AGG*. Only two of the cysteines had been changed by the previous oligonucleotide mutagenesis; one highly conserved cysteine at position 60 was changed to valine and one moderately conserved cysteine at position 127 was changed to threonine. The remaining amino acid changes were all due to point mutations in the DNA, consistent with error-prone PCR. Interestingly, three of these changed the amino acid into that found in the wild-type green-emitting luciferase (two in mutant Luc304B02). Four of the remaining changes brought the mutant sequences closer to the consensus amino acid among other cloned beetle luciferases (two in mutant Luc30-4B02) (FIG. 19B). An additional 4 codons were changed without affecting the amino acid sequence.

Site-Directed Mutagenesis

To further explore the potential of the mutations identified in the sequenced mutants, additional mutagenesis experiments were performed using oligonucleotides. Eight of the codons mutated by the error-prone PCR were randomized or partially randomized using oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis. Four of the remaining cysteine codons were randomized; two highly conserved cysteines (positions 80 and 388) and two cysteines in a region of sequence homology (positions 310 and 311). One leucine was mutated to a leucine/proline; proline is the consensus amino acid among other beetle luciferases.

The mutagenesis was performed with four sets of oligonucleotides (Table 13), and the best clones from each set were selected. These were recombined by sPCR together with the selected clones from the previous random mutagenesis and screened again. The activity of the best clone from this process (Luc47-7A11) decreased 2.3 fold at 42° C.; the activity of the parent clone (Luc30-4B02) decreased greater than 2000 fold.

TABLE 13 Experiment Mutations Set A C₈₀□X + K₈₄□X + I₉₁□(F, L, I, M, V, S, P, T, A) Set B I₂₈₈□(F, L, I, M, V, S, P, T, A) C₃₁₀□X + C₃₁₁□X Set C G₃₅₁□(I, M, V, T, A, N, K, D, E, S, R, G) + L₃₅₀□(L, P) + S₃₅₆□P + L₃₅₉□(F, L, I, M, V, S, P, T, A) Set D C₃₈₈□X + V₃₈₉□(NYN) K₄₅₇□X

Second Cycle of Random Mutagenesis

The random mutagenesis process using error-prone PCR was applied again to the best clone from the oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis (Luc47-7A11). Three libraries were again created and screened, and selected mutants were recombined by sPCR and screened again. Following recombination, the activity of the best mutant (Luc53-0G01) decreased 1.2 fold at 43° C. The parent clone (Luc47-7A11) decreased 150 fold. After recombining the best of these new mutants with the best mutants from the previous oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, the activity of the new best mutant (Luc55-2E09) decreased 31 fold at 47° C., compared to 80 fold for the parent (Luc53-0G01).

Third Cycle of Random Mutagenesis

The random mutagenesis process was repeated using the best clone from the previous cycle of mutagenesis (Luc53-0G01). After recombining the selected mutants with the mutants from the second cycle of mutagenesis, the activity of the best clone (Luc81-6G01) decreased 100-fold at 47° C., compared with 750 fold for the parent (Luc53-0G01). The discrepancy in measured activity of Luc53-0G01 in this cycle of mutagenesis compared to the previous cycle may be due to changes in the assay procedure and recalibration of the incubator temperature. It should be noted that the recorded thermostabilities from each stage of mutagenesis are calculated from robotic data using abbreviated assay procedures. The data are intended to indicate the relative stabilities of enzyme mutants when assayed in the same screen, rather than providing an accurate quantitation of thermostability.

Luminescence

Before making a final selection of the best clone from which to create the green- and red-emitting luciferases, further analysis was done on the best clones from the final screen. Three clones in particular were strong candidates as the final choice: Luc81-0B11, Luc81-5F01, and Luc81-6G01. The luminescence properties of these three mutant enzymes were compared among one another. They were also compared to the wild-type yellow-green-emitting luciferase to gauge the effect of the in vitro evolution process.

From colonies of E. coli expressing the luciferases, Luc81-5F01 and Luc81-6G01 produced luminescence most rapidly at room temperature upon addition of luciferin. The luminescence was more rapid and brighter than colonies expressing the wild-type green- and yellow-green-emitting luciferases. The luminescence from all the selected colonies appeared green-shifted compared to the yellow-green parent clone. When the colonies are heated to 65° C., the yellow-green clone looses most luminescence and the green clone becomes dimmer. Some of the mutant clones loose their luminescence at 65° C., but the three preferred clones remain bright above 70° C. No spectral changes upon heating the colonies were evident until above 70° C., where those clones still retaining activity began to red-shift slightly (sometime, the initial phases of enzyme denaturation are accompanied by a red shift in the luminescence). The luminescence characteristics of the three preferred mutants are quite similar.

The thermostability of the mutant luciferases in cell lysates was compared at room temperature (FIG. 63). Dilute lysates were buffered at pH 7.5 and contained 1% Triton X-100; typical conditions for lysates of mammalian cells. The luminescence activity of all three mutant enzyme showed no decrease over 20 hours, whereas the activity of the wild-type yellow-green-emitting luciferase decreased substantially.

For luminescence assays requiring only a few second, the wild-type yellow-green-emitting luciferase produces a very stable signal (the initial rise in the signal evident in the first 2 seconds is due to the response time of the luminometer, not the kinetics of the luminescence reaction). However, the signal intensity was reduced about 30% by the presence of 1% Triton X-100 in the lysate (diluted 1:5 with the addition of assay reagent). In contrast, the luminescence intensity of the mutant luciferases was unaffected by the presence of Triton X-100. Under these conditions, the most stable signal was produced by Luc81-6G01, although the signal intensity was somewhat brighter for Luc81-5F01. However, the data are not corrected for the efficiency of enzyme expression in E. coli. Thus, differences in luminescence intensity may not correlate to changes in enzyme specific activity, nor is the expression efficiency in E. coli necessarily relevant to expression in mammalian cells.

For batches of assays requiring more than an hour to process, the signal stability of the yellow-green-emitting luciferase is inadequate under the conditions tested. The luminescence intensity decreases several fold per hour (FIG. 64). Attempts to correct this by the in vitro evolution yielded mixed results. The signal stability of all three mutant enzymes was generally much improved over the parent yellow-green enzyme for three hours after substrate addition. However, this was accompanied by a greater initial decrease in luminescence during the first half-hour. This initial decrease would be more acceptable if it had occurred more rapidly, so that batch processing of samples would not be delayed by 30 minutes in waiting for the signal to stabilize. It may be possible to improve this kinetic behavior by adjusting the assay conditions.

From these results, the mutant Luc81-6G01 was chosen as the best clone from which to subsequently create the green- and red-emitting luciferases. The sequence of Luc81-6G01 (FIGS. 46-47) and Luc81-0B11 was determined and compared with the sequences of Luc30-4B02 from earlier in the in vitro evolution process, and the wild-type yellow-green-emitting luciferase used as the initial parent clone (FIG. 19B). Relative to Luc30-4B02, the Luc81-6G01 mutant acquired new mutations in 9 codons, of which 8 caused changes in the amino acid sequence. Four of these 8 amino acid changes were probably acquired through recombination with clones generated prior to isolation of Luc30-4B02. Two are identical to mutations found in the other clones sequenced along with Luc30-4B02, and two are reversions to the wild-type parent sequence. The remaining four are novel in the sequence of Luc81-6G01. Two of the novel mutations change the amino acid to the consensus amino acid among other cloned luciferases.

Interestingly, in either the sequences of Luc81-6G01 or Luc81-0B11, there is no evidence that the prior oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis had any beneficial effect. No novel nucleotide sequences appear at any of the targeted codons. The improved enzyme performance following the oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis apparently was due to recombination of previously acquired mutations. All of the novel amino acid changes in Luc81-6G01 and Luc81-0B11 are at sites not targeted by the oligonucleotides and are due to single-base modifications of the codons, consistent with error-prone PCR. Even though the novel mutations in Luc81-6G01 were not found in the earlier sequence data, it is not certain when they were generated in the process. Most likely they were produced in the second and third cycles of random mutagenesis; however, they may have been present among other selected mutants prior to Luc30-4B02. Relative to the initial yellow-green-emitting luciferase, the Luc81-6G01 mutant has acquired 17 amino acid changes and 3 codon mutations not affecting the amino acid sequence.

The observation that the onset of luminescence within colonies of E. coli is faster for the new mutants, and that the luminescence is brighter at higher temperatures, is probably not due to differences in protein expression. Immunoblot analysis of cell expressing the different luciferases showed no significant differences in the amount of polypeptide present. As noted above, the greater light intensity at higher temperatures is due to the increased thermostability of the mutant luciferases. The apparent K_(M)'s for ATP and luciferin have also changed during the course of the in vitro evolution (Table 14). To estimate the K_(M) values, the mutant luciferases were partially purified from lysates of E. coli by differential precipitation using ammonium sulfate (40-65% saturation fraction). The results show that the K_(M)'s for both ATP and luciferase are more than 10-fold lower.

When luciferin is added to an E. coli colony expressing luciferase, the intracellular concentration of luciferin slowly increases as it diffuses across the cell membrane. Thus, the intracellular concentration of luciferin reaches saturation sooner for those luciferases having the lowest K_(M)'s. Hence, the mutant luciferases appear brighter sooner than the wild-type parent clone. This also explains why the luminescence of the red-emitting prototype clone appears in E. coli colonies much more slowly than the green-emitting luciferase. Analysis of K_(M) shows that the mutations causing the red luminescence also substantially increase the K_(M) for luciferin.

TABLE 14 Luciferase K_(M) for ATP (μM) K_(M) for luciferin (μM) YG w.t. 140 21 Luc30-4B02 12 7.8 Luc81-6G01 8.0 1.9

From the analysis of luminescence signal in vitro, the luminescence from the mutant luciferases might be expected to fade more quickly than the wild-type luciferase during the first 30 minutes. Following this, the luminescence should be most stable in the mutants. However, this has not been noticed in the colonies of E. coli, and it may be that the kinetics of luminescence are different within cells compared to diluted enzyme in buffer.

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Fromant, M., Blanquet, S., Plateau, P., Analytical-Biochemistry (1995) 224:347-53.

Hanahan, D. (1985) in DNA Cloning, v. 1, ed. Glover, D. W. (IRL Press, Oxford) pp. 109-135.

Hastings, J. W., Kricka, L. J., Stanley, P. E., (eds.) Bioluminescence and Chemiluminescence, Molecular reporting with Photons. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons (1996) 248-52.

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All publications, patents and patent applications are incorporated herein by reference. While in the foregoing specification, this invention has been described in relation to certain preferred embodiments thereof, and many details have been set forth for purposes of illustration, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the invention is susceptible to additional embodiments and that certain of the details herein may be varied considerably without departing from the basic principles of the invention. 

1. A thermostable beetle luciferase comprising at least one amino acid substitution at an amino acid corresponding to residue 2, 27, 91, 144, 173, 183, 204, 220, 221, 262, 294, 354, 356, 386, 394, 399, 412, 413 or 499 of SEQ ID NO:37, or a combination thereof.
 2. The thermostable beetle luciferase of claim 1 which retains at least 50% activity in aqueous solution for at least 2 hours at a temperature of about 50° C.
 3. The thermostable luciferase of claim 1 which retains at least 90% activity for at least 40 days at a temperature of about 22° C.
 4. The thermostable luciferase of claim 1 which retains activity for at least 12 hours at a temperature of about 37° C.
 5. The thermostable luciferase of claim 1 which retains activity for at least 2 hours at a temperature of about 60° C. or 65° C.
 6. The thermostable luciferase of claim 1 further comprising: a) increased luminescence intensity, b) increased signal stability, and/or c) decreased Km for luciferin or ATP relative to the reference beetle luciferase.
 7. An isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding the thermostable beetle luciferase of claim
 1. 8. The isolated nucleic acid molecule of claim 7 wherein the thermostable beetle luciferase retains at least 50% activity in aqueous solution for at least 2 hours at a temperature of about 50° C.
 9. The isolated nucleic acid molecule of claim 7 wherein the thermostable beetle luciferase retains at least 90% activity for at least 40 days at a temperature of about 22° C.
 10. The isolated nucleic acid molecule of claim 7 wherein the thermostable beetle luciferase retains activity for at least 12 hours at a temperature of about 37° C.
 11. The isolated nucleic acid molecule of claim 7 wherein the thermostable beetle luciferase retains activity for at least 2 hours at a temperature of about 60° C. or 65° C.
 12. The isolated nucleic acid molecule of claim 7 wherein the thermostable beetle luciferase further comprises: a) increased luminescence intensity, b) increased signal stability, and/or c) decreased Km relative to the reference beetle luciferase.
 13. An isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding a thermostable beetle luciferase comprising at least one amino acid substitution at an amino acid corresponding to residue 2, 27, 91, 144, 173, 183, 204, 220, 221, 262, 294, 354, 356, 386, 394, 399, 412, 413 or 499 of SEQ ID NO:37, or a combination thereof.
 14. The isolated nucleic acid of claim 13 which retains at least 50% activity in aqueous solution for at least 2 hours at a temperature of about 50° C.
 15. The thermostable luciferase of claim 13 which retains at least 90% activity for at least 40 days at a temperature of about 22° C.
 16. The thermostable luciferase of claim 13 which retains activity for at least 12 hours at a temperature of about 37° C.
 17. The thermostable luciferase of claim 13 which retains activity for at least 2 hours at a temperature of about 60° C. or 65° C.
 18. The thermostable luciferase of claim 13 further comprising: a) increased luminescence intensity, b) increased signal stability, and/or c) decreased Km for luciferin or ATP relative to the reference beetle luciferase.
 19. An isolated thermostable beetle luciferase encoded by the isolated nucleic acid of claim
 13. 20. A thermostable beetle luciferase comprising a plurality of amino acid substitutions relative to a corresponding beetle luciferase, wherein at least three substitutions are associated with increased thermostability, and wherein at least one substitution is to a consensus amino acid identified by comparing a plurality of wild-type beetle luciferases selected from the group consisting of Luciola cruciata luciferase, Luciola lateralis luciferase, Pyrophorus plagiophthalamus luciferase, Pyrocoelia miyako luciferase, Lampyris noctiluca luciferase, Photuris pennsylvanica luciferase, Phengodes luciferase and Photinus pyralis luciferase. 